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61FT  OP 
ROBEFCT 
BEIPHER 


HALF  HOURS  WITH 


THE   LOWER  ANIMALS 


PROTOZOANS,   SPONGES,   CORALS,   SHELLS 
INSECTS,  AND   CRUSTACEANS 


BY 


CHARLES  FREDERICK  HOLDER 

AUTHOR   OF   "ELEMENTS   OF   ZOOLOGY,"    "STORIES   OF  ANIMAL   LIFE," 
"LIFE   OF   LOUIS    AGASSIZ,"   ETC. 


THE 

UNIVERSITY  ) 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


BELCHER 


COPYRIGHT,  1905,  BY 
CHARLES   F.   HOLDER. 

ENTERED  AT  STATIONERS'  HALL,  LONDON. 


LOWER  ANIMALS. 
W.  P.    2 


PREFACE 

AT  the  present  day  education  is  not  complete  without 
definite  courses  of  nature  study.  We  are  living  in  an  age 
of  strenuous  business  life  and  activity,  where  the  best 
equipped  students  along  the  various  lines  secure  the  best 
positions.  Time  was  when  zoology,  botany,  and  kindred 
nature  studies  were  classed  with  music  and  the  so-called 
dead  languages,  and  were  taken  up  as  incidentals  or  were 
employed  in  "  mind  training " ;  but  to-day  there  are  a 
thousand  branches  of  trade  and  commerce  which  require 
knowledge  that  can  be  obtained  only  through  nature 
study. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  student,  unless  he  intends 
to  be  a  teacher  of  science  or  a  professional  naturalist, 
should  be  able  to  pass  examinations  in  the  abstruse  clas- 
sification of  animals  or  delve  into  difficult  anatomical 
studies.  What  the  average  student  needs  is  a  broad  and 
general  idea  of  animal  life,  its  great  divisions,  and  notably 
the  relationship  of  the  lower  animals  to  man  in  an  eco- 
nomic sense,  the  geographical  distribution  of  animals,  etc. 
It  is  vastly  more  important  for  the  coming  lumber  mer- 
chant to  know  the  relationship  which  forests  bear  to  the 
water  supply,  and  to  have  a  general  idea  of  forestry  and 
the  trees  which  make  forests,  than  to  be  able  to  recite  a 
long  formula  of  classification  or  analysis,  of  value  only  to 
the  advanced  student  or  specialist.  The  future  merchant 
who  is  to  deal  in  alpaca,  leather,  dye,  skins,  hair,  bone 
products,  shell,  pearl,  lac,  animal  food  products,  ivory, 
whalebone,  guano,  feathers,  and  countless  other  articles 
derived  from  animals  is  but  poorly  equipped  for  the  strug- 

3 

150418 


4  PREFACE 

gle  for  business  supremacy  if  he  is  not  prepared  by  nature 
study,  nature  readings,  and  other  practical  instruction 
along  these  lines. 

It  is  believed  to-day  by  those  who  have  given  the  sub- 
ject the  closest  attention  that  the  initial  move  of  the 
teacher  should  be  to  call  the  attention  of  the  child  to  the 
beauties  of  nature,  the  works  of  the  Infinite,  and  thus 
early  inculcate  a  habit  of  observation.  The  toys  of  the 
kindergarten  should  be  fruits,  flowers,  shrubs,  trees,  peb- 
bles, and  vistas  of  mountains,  hills,  lakes,  and  streams, 
and  nature  study  in  some  form  should  be  continuous  in 
school  life. 

In  the  following  readings  the  story  of  lower  animal  life 
has  been  presented  on  broad  lines,  divested  of  technicality, 
and  at  almost  every  step  supplemented  by  forceful  and 
explanatory  illustrations  as  ocular  aids  to  the  reader.  The 
subject  has  been  divested  of  dry  detail,  and  I  have  intro- 
duced notes  and  incidents,  the  results  of  personal  obser- 
vation and  investigation  in  various  lands  and  seas,  and 
have  given  attention  to  the  often  neglected  fauna  of  the 
Pacific  coast  as  well  as  that  of  other  regions. 

While  the  volume  is  a  supplementary  reader,  the  matter 
is  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  used  by  the  teacher  as  a  text- 
book, and  the  pupil  who  undertakes  the  various  "  half- 
hour  readings"  of  this  series  will  have  covered  in  the 
main  the  ground  of  the  ordinary  text-book  for  intermedi- 
ate grades  in  the  form  of  readings.  In  a  word,  I  have  en- 
deavored to  make  this  volume  a  popular  combined  review 
and  supplemental  reader  on  the  lower  forms  of  animal  life 
from  the  Amoeba  to  the  insects  inclusive,  and  the  series 
to  follow  will  present  the  entire  subject  of  animal  life  or 
zoology,  voluminously  illustrated,  on  a  similar  plan. 

CHARLES  F.  HOLDER. 
PASADENA,  CALIFORNIA. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  INHABITANTS  OF  A  DROP  OF  WATER       ...        7 

II.    THE  SPONGES  *. 18 

III.  THE  JELLYFISHES 26 

IV.  THE  SEA  ANEMONES 38 

V.    THE  CORALS 44 

VI.     THE  STONE  LILIES 56 

VII.     THE  STARS  OF  THE  SEA 60 

VIII.  OCEAN  HEDGEHOGS  .        .        .                .        .        .65 

IX.  THE  SEA  CUCUMBERS        .        .        .        .                       70 

X.    THE  WORMS 73 

XI.    THE  TWO-VALVED  SHELLS 89 

XII.  THE  UNIVALVES    •    .        .                 .        .        .        .     103 

XIII.  THE  CUTTLEFISHES 117 

XIV.  THE  CRUSTACEANS 128 

XV.  FROM  BARNACLES  TO  LOBSTERS       .        .        .        .134 

XVI.     THE  CRABS 145 

XVII.     LUMINOUS  CRABS 156 

XVIII.    THE  INSECTS .        .159 

XIX.  LOWER  FORMS  OF  INSECTS        .        .        .        .        .     164 

XX.     THE  SPIDERS 168 

XXI.  SOME  SIX-LEGGED  INSECTS       .        .        .        .        .178 

XXII.     SOME  MIMICS 186 

5 


6  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXIII.  THE  GRASSHOPPERS  AND  LOCUSTS   .        .        .        .190 

XXIV.  THE  BEETLES 195 

XXV.     THE  BUGS i99 

XXVI.  FLIES  AND  MOSQUITOES 204 

XXVII.  THE  BUTTERFLIES  AND  MOTHS  .  .  .  .212 

XXVIII.  THE  ANTS 222 

XXIX.     THE  BEES  AND  WASPS 228 

INDEX 233 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


HALF    HOURS   WITH 

THE    LOWER   ANIMALS 

PROTOZOANS,  SPONGES,  CORALS,  SHELLS, 
INSECTS,  AND  CRUSTACEANS 

I.     INHABITANTS   OF   A   DROP   OF  WATER 

THE  most  unobserving  stroller  through  the  forest  or  by 
the  seashore  can  not  fail  to  be  impressed  by  the  abun- 
dance and  variety  of  animal  life ;  yet  the  forms  visible  to 
the  naked  eye  really  constitute  but  a  fraction  of  the  vast 
horde  which  makes  up  what  we  call  life. 

In  the  year  1901  a  strange  phenomenon  appeared  off 
the  coast  of  southern  California.  The  ocean  assumed  a 
reddish  muddy  hue  which  was  traced  for  four  hundred 
miles  up  the  coast  and  from  one  to  twenty  miles  off- 
shore ;  hence,  at  a  conservative  estimate,  the  reddish  color 
occupied  a  space  of  ten  thousand  square  miles.  At  night 
it  assumed  a  greenish  light,  and  when  the  wind  rose 
and  formed  whitecaps,  each  became  a  blaze  of  light,  and 
the  ocean  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach  was  converted  into 
a  mass  of  seeming  flame.  The  sands  of  the  beach  gave 
out  flashes  of  light  when  touched ;  the  footsteps  of  dog  or 
man  on  the  sands  left  an  imprint  of  vivid  light,  and  figures 
made  on  the  sands  with  a  finger  or  stick  stood  out  in 
lines  of  light.  Ten  thousand  square  miles  of  phospho- 

7 


8  INHABITANTS    OF   A   DROP   OF   WATER 

rescent  light ;  ten  thousand  square  miles  of  living  beings, 
each  so  minute  that  it  was  almost  if  not  quite  invisible 
to  the  human  eye.  Who  could  estimate  the  individuals 
in  one  square  mile,  one  square  foot,  or  even  a  drop  of 
this  reddish  water?  This  illustrates  the  fact  that  the 
greater  number  of  the  earth's  population  are  unseen,  even 
though  not  invisible  to  the  unaided  eye. 

These  minute  animals  are  as  interesting  as  the  larger 
forms.  Equipped  with  a  microscope,  we  are  prepared  to 
explore  the  regions  in  which  they  live  and  observe  their 
habits.  A  favorite  hunting  ground  for  this  small  game  is 
some  long-standing  water  in  which  plants  have  been  grow- 
ing. Placing  some  of  this,  with  the  green  scraping  of  the 
glass,  on  the  slide,  we  shall  soon  make  out,  moving  mys- 
teriously along,  something  which  resembles  the  white  of 
an  egg,  an  atom  of  slime  or  jelly.  Now  it  stops  and 
throws  out  parts  of  itself  which  seem  to  fuse  together 
again ;  now  it  is  long,  now  short  and  compact,  again  cir- 
cular. You  almost  believe  it  is  a  mere  atom  of  slime,  yet 
it  is  an  animal  which  eats  and  lives  its  life  cycle  in  a  drop 
of  water,  one  of  the  lowest  of  all  animals. 

It  is  called  Amoeba  (Fig.  i),  and  although  it  is  hardly  a 
hundredth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  yet  if  we  devote  some 
time  to  it  we  shall  find  that  it  is  a  very  remarkable  animal. 
Thus  if  it  wishes  to  move  in  any  given  direction,  a  portion 
of  the  body  becomes  a  seeming  leg  and  protrudes  in  that 
direction,  the  rest  of  the  body  following,  drawn  along  in 
some  mysterious  manner.  If  it  wishes  to  eat,  it  is  not 
obliged  to  twist  around  to  bring  the  food  or  victims 
opposite  the  mouth,  as  a  mouth  forms  there  and  then; 
the  Amoeba  merely  glides  around  it  and  covers  it  up. 


INHABITANTS   OF   A   DROP   OF   WATER  9 

We  may  even  notice  a  difference  in  the  parts.  Thus 
the  center  calls  to  mind  ground  glass  ;  it  is  blurred  or 
granular,  while  around  the  edges  is  a  little  border  which  is 
transparent,  like  ordinary  window  glass.  So  the  Amoeba 
is  a  minute  mass  of  jelly  inclosed  in  a  layer  a  little  clearer. 


FlG.  i. —  Amasba  proteus,  with  the  pseudopodia  (false  feet)  protruded,  enlarged 
200  diameters  (after  Leidy)  :  n,  nucleus ;  c,  contractile  vesicle ;  v,  one  of  the 
larger  food-vacuoles ;  en,  the  granular  endosarc ;  ec,  the  transparent  ectosarc ;  a, 
cell  of  an  Alga  taken  in  as  food  (other  cells  of  the  same  Alga  are  obliquely  shaded). 

Floating  in  the  granular  portion  is  seen  a  minute  round 
body  called  the  nucleus,  clearer  than  the  fluid  in  which  it 
rests,  and  not  far  away  another  clear,  circular  body,  which 
from  time  to  time  contracts  or  sometimes  disappears  in  a 
marvelous  fashion,  but  always  returns.  This  is  called  the 
contracting  vesicle,  and  here  our  discoveries-  end,  so  far  as 
organs  and  structure  are  concerned,  as  these  are  nearly 


10 


INHABITANTS    OF   A   DROP   OF   WATER 


FIG.  2. —  Aaiueba  eating: 
Pv,  contracting  vesicle. 


all  that  have  been  found  ;  yet  the  Amoeba  eats,  doubtless 
sleeps,  and  grows. 

We  may  watch  it  at  its  dinner.  When  a  victim  is  found, 
an  animal  smaller  than  itself,  out  shoots  a  little  cape  or 
extension  from  the  clear  rim,  creeping  slowly  up  the  side 
of  the  animal ;  and  if  we  watch  very 
closely,  we  shall  see  the  thicker 
portion  of  the  Amoeba,  that  which 
calls  to  mind  ground  glass,  running 
or  flowing  into  it.  Then  another 
false  foot,  as  it  is  called,  slowly 
creeps  out  on  the  opposite  side  and 
joins  its  companion,  more  of  the 
ground-glass  matter  slides  or  pours  into  this,  filling  it 
out,  and,  presto !  the  two  arms  merge  one  into  the  other. 
The  victim  has  been  swallowed  and  is  now  being  digested 
(Fig.  2,  d) 

That  this  minute  atom  has  its  likes  and  dislikes  is  evi- 
dent, for  if  the  food  is  too  large,  or  not  to  its  taste,  it 
retracts,  or  even  draws  away  from  it  after  it  has  swallowed 
it.  The  shells  of  its  victim,  if  it  has  them, 
are  rejected  in  a  manner  equally  simple; 
the  Amoeba  flows  away  from  them.  Jar  it 
with  a  needle  point  and  it  contracts,  show- 
ing that  it  can  be  irritated.  At  times  the 
body  is  seen  to  divide  and  two  Amoebae  are 
formed  (Fig.  3),  each  of  which  has  a  sepa- 
rate existence  from  then  on.  Such  is  one 
of  the  lowest  of  all  animals.  It  is  made 
up  of  but  a  single  cell.  All  the  members  of  the  other 
great  branches  of  the  animal  kingdom  and  the  higher 


FIG.  3.  —  Amoeba 
separating. 


INHABITANTS    OF   A   DROP   OF    WATER 


II 


plants  are  made  up  of  many  cells ;  hence  we  see  that  the 
Amoeba  is  the  simplest  and  lowest  of  all  animals. 

In  looking  into  our  drop  of  water  our  attention  has  per- 
haps been  distracted  by  other  animals!  In  point  of  fact, 
it  is  very  difficult  to  keep  the  eye  on  this  mass  of  slime  in 
its  slow  movements,  for  about  it,  over  it,  and  constantly 


9 


FIG.  4. —  Ciliated  Infusoria:   A,  Bursaria;   B,  Nyctotherus;   C,  Amphileptus;  D, 
Ceratium;  £,  Monosiga;  /,  flagellum;  n,  nucleus;  c,  contractile  vesicle. 

bumping  into  it  are  countless  other  forms  whose  motions 
convey  the  impression  that  life  to  them  is  very  active. 
The  most  numerous  are  little  objects  (Fig.  4)  resembling 
hats  or  bells,  which  go  rushing  along,  bumping  aimlessly 
into  all  others,  and  always  in  a  hurry.  Around  the  edge 
of  the  bell  or  hat  are  numerous  hairs  (cilia)  which  are 


12 


INHABITANTS   OF   A    DROP   OF   WATER 


really  locomotive  organs  by  which  the  little  animals  whirl 
themselves  along.  Near  them  we  see  numbers  of  similar 
objects,  each  one  forming  the  cup  of  a  seeming  flower, 
each  having  a  long  stem.  These  are  Bell  Animalcules 
(Fig.  5)  or  Vorticellae,  among  the  most  beautiful  and 
graceful  of  all  the  minute  animals,  but  much  higher  in  the 
scale  of  life,  as  they  have  a  permanent  mouth  and  form. 


FlG.  5.  —  A,  Stentor ;  B,  Vaginicola ;   C,  group  of  Vorticellae ;  D,  bud  of  Vorticella. 

Among  them,  swimming  rapidly,  comes  a  giant  by  con- 
trast, the  Paramcecium  (Fig.  6)  or  Slipper  Animalcule,  so 
called  from  its  resemblance  to  a  slipper.  It,  too,  is  a 
higher  form  than  Amoeba,  as  it  has  a  permanent  shape  ; 
yet  in  other  ways  it  is  as  simple  as  Amoeba.  The  Para- 
mcecium has  a  marvelous  array  of  oars  which  cover  its 
body.  Under  the  glass  they  look  like  eyelashes  or  whips, 
and  by  their  rapid  movements  they  drive  the  animal  along. 
On  the  side  is  the  mouth  opening,  into  which  the  animal 
fans  minute  animals,  and  they  can  be  seen  swept  along 


INHABITANTS   OF  A   DROP   OF   WATER 


by  the  irresistible  current,  caught  by  the  mouth  if  desirable, 
or  tossed  off  if  not  to  the  taste 
of  the  wonderful  living  slipper. 
After  glancing  at  the  drop  of 
water  for  a  few  moments  the 
observer  is  convinced  that  here 
is  a  world  in  itself,  with  a  popu- 
lation growing,  increasing,  devel- 
oping, devouring  its  prey,  and  in 
such  multitudes  that  the  mind 
can  not  grasp  the  figures. 

If  the  reader  visits  Egypt  and 
climbs  the  pyramids,  he  will  be 
impressed  by  these  the  greatest 
works  of  mankind.  If  a  small 
portion  of  the  stone  from  which 
they  are  constructed  is  placed 
under  the  glass,  it  will  be  found 
in  many  instances  made  up  almost 

'  FIG.  6.  —  Paramoecmm  :   e, 

entirely  of  beautiful  shells  (Fig.  /).      mouth;    w,   contracting    vacu- 

These  are  the  shells  of  an  amoeba- 
like  animal  known  as  a  Nummulite,  which  lived  millions 

of  years  ago,  and  whose  fossil 
remains  formed  the  stone 
from  which  the  early  Egyp- 
tians in  turn  built  the  great 
piles  or  monuments  of  their 
kings.  Man  is  powerful,  but 
in  this  instance  one  of  the 
most  insignificant  of  animals 
made  his  work  possible.  These  shells  are  of  great  beauty 


FIG.  7.  —  Nummulites. 


INHABITANTS   OF   A   DROP   OF  WATER 


and  variety  (Fig.  8). 


Many  are  perforated,  and  through 
the  minute  holes  are  seen  the 
false  feet  of  the  Amoeba  reach- 
ing out  for  food.  They  illus- 
trate the  boundless  resources 
of  nature,  and  suggest  that 
the  very  lowest  of,  creatures 
are  not  too  insignificant  to 
be  dressed  in  most  beautiful 
garbs,  as  all  these  forms  vie 
with  one  another  in  the  deli- 
cacy of  their  designs  (Fig.  9) 
and  the  grace  of  their  shapes. 
Some  of  these  shelled  forms  are  giants  two  inches  across. 
All  these  minute  shells  perform  a  marvelous  work  in  build- 
ing up  the  crust  of  the  earth,  forming  the  bottom  of  deep 


FIG.  8.  —  Flint-shelled  Radiolarian. 


FIG.  9.  —  Flint-shelled  Polycystina. 

seas  and  the  platforms  of  coral  reefs.  The  chalk  cliffs  of 
England  are  composed  of  shells  of  unestimated  millions 
(Fig.  10),  which  were  once  dropped  upon  the  bottom  of  a 
deep  sea  and  piled  upward  until  some  were  crushed  into 


INHABITANTS   OF   A   DROP    OF   WATER 


A  shapeless  mass  of  lime,  others  retained  their  shapes 
(Fig.  11);  and  all,  by  some  convulsion,  were  afterward 
lifted  high  into  the  air. 

The  entire  ocean  is  as  thickly  populated  with  these 
atoms  as  the  drop  of  fresh  water.  The  shelled  forms  are 
as  constantly  dying,  the  shells  falling  or  sinking  in  a  con- 
tinual rain  of  shells  upon  the  bottom,  piling  up  eternally. 


FlG.  10.  —  Foraminifera  from 
Atlantic  ooze. 


FlG.  ii.  — Section  of  English  chalk 
cliff.  Highly  magnified.  Bottom  of 
an  ancient  sea. 


Who  shall  estimate  their  countless  numbers  ?  It  is 
believed  that  these  minute  shells  are  as  abundant  down 
to  a  depth  of  six  hundred  feet  as  they  are  at  the  surface. 
There  are  more  than  sixteen  tons  of  limy  shells  floating  in 
the  uppermost  one  hundred  fathoms  of  every  square  mile 
of  the  ocean.  These  facts  convey  an  idea  of  one  way  in 
which  the  earth  is  growing  —  increasing  in  size  but  not  in 
weight,  as  these  delicate  creatures  merely  secrete  the 
carbonate  of  lime  which  forms  their  shells.  They  take  it 
from  the  surrounding  water  of  which  it  has  been  a  part. 

It  would  be  of  great  interest  to  learn  exactly  how  these 
humble  creatures  take  lime  from  the  water  and  produce 


1 6  INHABITANTS   OF   A   DROP   OF   WATER 

shells  of  such  marvelous  beauty :  to  learn  why  one  is  of 
lime  and  others,  like  the  Radiolarians,  are  of  silica  ;  why 
some  live  at  the  surface  and  are  free  swimmers,  while 
others  creep  about  in  the  ooze.  When  the  deep-sea 
explorers  first  began  to  dredge,  they  found  over  vast  areas 
a  peculiar  mud  or  ooze,  and  investigation  showed  that  it 
was  formed  almost  entirely  of  the  shells  of  a  certain 
minute  shell  maker,  from  which  it  was  named  the  Globig- 
erina  ooze.  Finding  these  vast  banks  or  beds  of  mud  at 
this  depth  is  suggestive  that  the  deepest  seas  may  yet  be 
filled  by  the  dropping  of  this  invisible  rain ;  but  as  the 
average  depth  of  the  ocean  is  nearly  if  not  quite  three 
miles,  many  centuries  must  pass  before  this  will  be  accom- 
plished. 

The  marvelous  phos- 
phorescent light  previ- 
ously described  came 
from  a  minute  armored 
form  known  as  Peridin- 
ium,  but  even  this  is 
exceeded  by  the  glories 
of  a  little  monad  called 
Noctiluca  (Fig.  12).  It 
is  a  giant  of  the  tribe, 
and  is  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  being  almost 

FIG.  12.  —  Noctiluca.    Highly  magnified. 

as  large  as  the  head  of 

a  pin,  and  resembling  a  currant  in  shape.  It  has  a  single 
hairlike  organ  or  lash,  supposed  to  be  a  locomotive  organ, 
by  which  it  whirls  itself  through  the  water.  Of  all  the 
light  givers  of  the  sea  this  is  the  most  common,  some  of 


INHABITANTS   OF  A  DROP  OF  WATER  i; 

its  species  being  found  in  every  sea,  and  where  they  are, 
it  is  necessary  only  to  splash  the  water  to  cause  a  blaze  of 
light  to  follow.  A  French  naturalist  placed  on  record  the 
fact  that  so  brilliant  was  the  light  occasioned  by  this 
minute  organism  in  African  waters  that  he  read  by  their 
light  standing  on  a  beach  where  a  heavy  surf  came  pound- 
ing in  upon  the  sand.  The  light  of  this  little  creature  is 
remarkable  not  only  for  its  vividness  but  for  its  many  dif- 
ferent tints.  Now  it  is  a  fitful  vivid  green,  again  the  water 
is  a  blaze  of  yellow  light,  or  orange.  At  such  times,  when 
a  ship  is  plowing  along,  the  light  is  so  brilliant  that  the  sails 
and  rigging  are  brilliantly  illumined,  casting  weird  shadows. 
Some  Noctilucae  emit  a  clear  blue  light,  but  when  the 
same  animal  is  disturbed  it  appears  white  with  green  and 
blue  flashes  of  great  beauty  and  intensity — a  telling 
illustration  of  the  boundless,  and  marvelous,  resources  of 
nature.  Many  interesting  experiments  have  been  tried 
with  these  dainty  light  givers.  A  tube  fifteen  millimeters 
in  diameter  was  filled  with  them,  and  by  shaking  this  novel 
lamp  a  printed  page  was  read  a  foot  distant ;  yet  when  a 
delicate  thermometer  was  thrust  into  the  fiery  mass,  the 
mercury  was  not  affected  in  the  slightest,  showing  that 
here  was  that  wonder  of  wonders  —  vivid  light  without 
heat  —  a  secret  which  man  has  vainly  endeavored  to  wrest 
from  nature.  The  vast  number  of  these  minute  creatures 
can  be  realized  when  it  is  said  that  the  ship  Magenta 
sailed  nearly  five  hundred  miles  among  swarms  of  Noctilucae, 
which  gave  splendid  displays  of  phosphorescent  light  at 
night.  Sometimes  the  light  emitted  was  milky  white; 
again  it  was  green,  or  blue,  the  different  species  possess- 
ing different  colors. 

HOL.  LO.  AN.  —  2 


II.     THE   SPONGES 

ALMOST  every  day,  for  several  years,  I  devoted 
one  or  more  hours  to  the  pastime  of  floating  or 
drifting  over  a  part  of   the  great  coral  reef 
which  constitutes  the  most  westward  portion 
of  Florida  where  it  reaches  out  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Yucatan.     The  islands  composing  the 
group  are  the  Tortugas  Keys,  and  are  just 
above    water;    indeed    some    disappeared 
when  a  particularly  heavy  hurricane  came, 
and  in  the  center  of  the  island  upon  which 
I  lived,  the  water  at  very  high  tide  ap- 
peared above  the  surface. 

Among  the  commonest  objects 
seen  on  the  reef  were 
huge  vases  (Fig.  13). 


FIG.  13.  —  Living  sponges. 
18 


THE   SPONGES  19 

They  were  found  in  water  from  a  foot  to  fifteen  feet  or 
more  in  depth,  and  were  attached  so  strongly  to  the 
bottom  that  it  required  considerable  strength  to  lift 
them  up.  Some  were  three  feet  high,  and  I  have  often 
dived  down  to  them  and  for  a  few  seconds  sat  upon 
them  as  a  jest  for  the  edification  of  my  companions  in 
the  boat  above.  A  common  name  for  them  on  the  reef 
was  "  Neptune's  Seats."  The  seats  were  sponges,  and 
their  collection  on  the  Florida  reef  has  for  many  years 
constituted  an  important  industry,  vessels  being  fitted 
out  from  Key  West  and  other  places  for  this  purpose. 
This  industry  is  also  followed  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  where  the  finest  sponges  known  are  found.  To 
take  them,  men  go  out  in  small  boats,  and  in  shallow 
water  bring  them  up  with  hooks.  In  the  greater  depths 
a  water  box  is  used,  a  box  with  a  glass  bottom,  which 
placed  over  the  water  makes  everything  visible,  and  by 
this  the  sponger  secures  the  sponge.  Other  collectors, 
especially  those  of  Syria,  dive  for  them  and  wrench 
them  from  the  bottom,  then  ascend  to  the  surface  with 
the  load.  There  are  many  different  kinds  of  sponges, 
those  commonly  used  being  divided  into  grades,  from 
the  delicate  face  sponge  to  the  coarse  specimens  used 
for  washing  carriages.  Then  there  are  hundreds  of  kinds 
of  sponges  which  have  no  value  but  to  form  veritable 
mimic  forest  growths  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  (Fig.  14). 
Some  grow  upon  stones  or  sea  mud  and  are  brilliantly 
colored ;  others  again  are  like  glass,  and  all  represent 
one  of  the  lowest  forms  of  animal  life,  yet  one  of  the 
most  beautiful,  and  one  that  is  very  useful. 

In  handling  a  sponge  the  most  indifferent  person  has 


20 


THE   SPONGES 


not   failed    to    observe    two    peculiarities,    one    that    the 
sponge  is  soft,  another  that  it  is  filled  with  holes,  small 


FIG.  14.  —  A  sponge  (Ascetta primordialis) :  I.  o,  exhalent  opening;  p,  inhalant 
pores;  g,  ova.  Starlike  spicules  are  seen  on  the  outside.  II.  Section  showing 
pores  (p),  with  cilia  of  the  cells  extending  into  them.  III.  Cell  showing  lash,  or 
cilium.  IV.  Same,  with  lash  retracted.  V.  Embryo  of  Ascetta  mirabilis.  VI. 
Section  of  embryo. 


THE   SPONGES 


and  large,  and  has  a  marvelous  faculty  of  retaining  water, 
in  which  property  lies  its  value  to  man.  Now  if  we  take 
a  sponge  and  cut  down  through  it,  making  a  section,  we 
shall  find  that  these  holes  are  nothing  more  or  less  than 
doors  or  mouths  which  lead  into  the  interior  of  the 
sponge.  If  we  are  so  fortunate  as  to  have  a  live  sponge 
to  study,  we  shall  see  that  water  is  being  forced  through 
all  the  small  pores  and  out  into  the  larger  ones ;  and  if 
we  could  examine  the  water,  we  should  see  that  the 
water  which  passed  in,  is  laden  with  living  creatures 
which  have  been  described  in  a  previous  chapter,  while 
the  water  which  is  discharged  contains  little  or  no 
living  matter.  The  reader  will  have  suspected  what 
this  in-going  and  out-coming  is.  It  is  the  operation 
of  eating  on  the  part  of  the  sponge,  which,  while  it 
looks  very  much  like  a  plant  and  appears  to  be  grow- 
ing from  the  ground,  is  an  animal,  or  a  community  of 
many  cells  —  a  many-celled  animal. 

In  our  section  of  a 
sponge  we  may  follow 
the  winding  channels 
which  connect  one  part 
of  the  sponge  with  the 
other,  and  we  see  that 
the  body  is  a  mass  of 
fibers  made  up  of  curi- 
ous and  beautifully 
shaped  objects  called 
spicules(Fig.  15).  The 
spicules  are  the  bones 

Of     Sponges,    the     hard         FIG.  15.  —  Flint  spicules  highly  magnified. 


22 


THE   SPONGES 


portion,  the  framework.  In  the  sponge  we  find  here  and 
there  little  oval  rooms,  and  in  these  are  packed,  side  by 
side,  minute  objects  with  tails  (Fig.  16).  Each  little  cell 

has  its  tail  upon  the  outside, 
which  is  really  a  whip  or  lash, 
used  for  capturing  passing  food. 
In  these  rooms  the  cells  congre- 
gate and  are  fed  by  the  constant 
onward  flow  of  water  laden  with 
food.  The  food  is  in  the  shape 
of  minute  animals  and  plants 
which  these  little  whips  catch 
as  they  pass  by.  The  whips 
have  another  purpose ;  their  con- 
stant motion  serves  to  force 
the  water  along  through  the 
canals,  carrying  air  as  well  as 
food. 

Some  of  the  sponges  have  very  singular  shapes.  One 
is  called  the  finger  sponge,  and  often  takes  the  form  of  a 
hand.  Others  are  very  long  and  slender  (Fig.  17). 
Some  are  perfectly  round ;  others  creep  over  stones  and 
form  a  brilliant  red  matting,  a  charming  object  in  the 
water. 

The  great  vase  or  seat  sponges  are  often  the  habitations 
of  animals  of  various  kinds  —  shrimps,  crabs,  and  fishes. 
After  a  hurricane  I  have  found  a  windrow  of  them  on  the 
beaches.  When  the  sponge  is  taken  from  the  water  it  is 
fleshy  and  seems  covered  with  a  reddish  colored  mass  of 
jelly,  or  it  is  black,  brown,  or  yellow,  as  the  case  may  be. 
The  sponge  of  commerce  is  the  skeleton,  the  mass  of  living 


FlG.  16.  —  Parts  of  a  sponge 
(Grantia) :  B,  cross  section  show- 
ing pores  leading  into  tubes  C'; 
C,  enlarged  tube ;  D,  cells  mag- 
nified. 


THE   SPONGES 


spicules  after  all  the  animal  matter  has  been  removed  and 
the  framework,  elastic  and  soft,  thoroughly  bleached. 

The  variety  in 
shape,  color,  and 
size  in  sponges  is 
remarkable  and 
can  riot  be  appre- 
ciated until  a  col- 
lection of  these 
lowly  animals  is 
seen  with  the  in- 
dividuals side  by 
side.  In  such  a 
collection  one 
sponge,  shown  in 
Figure  18,  will 
attract  the  ob- 
server for  its  re- 
markable beauty ; 
indeed  few  would 
consider  it  any- 
thing but  a  beautiful  glass  vase.  Some  years  ago  one 
was  brought  to  England  from  the  South  Pacific  and  sold 
for  several  hundred  dollars.  It  was  believed  to  be  the 
work  of  some  skilled  native  artist  in  glass.  But  finally 
some  one  discovered  that  the  natives  did  not  make  them, 
but  hooked  them  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  when 
they  had  no  resemblance  to  the  glass  vases  of  commerce 
sold  for  enormous  sums  under  the  title  of  Venus's  flower 
basket.  When  first  brought  up  the  vase  was  dark  and 
covered  with  mud  ;  then  it  was  found  that  it  was  a  sponge, 


FIG.  17. —  Sponges:  A,  Axinella;  B,  Sycandra. 


THE   SPONGES 


FIG.  i$.  — Skeleton  of  a  sponge. 


and  that  the  so- 
called  glass  was 
merely  the  interior, 
the  framework  over 
which  was  drawn 
the  ugly  exterior 
animal  matter.  It 
is  needless  to  say 
that  the  enormous 
price  of  the  Venus's 
flower  basket 
dropped,  and  it  can 
now  be  bought  for 
a  few  cents. 

No  more  beauti- 
ful object  can  be 
imagined  than  this 
sponge,  known  as 
the  Euplectella.  It 
has  great  wisps  of 
glasslike  matter  at 
the  bottom,  which 
anchor  it  in  the 
sand  or  mud,  and 
the  framework  ap- 
pears to  rise  up- 
ward in  whirls,  the 
surface  being  made 
up  of  squares  or 
basket  work,  so 
artificial  that  it  is 


THE   SPONGES  2$ 

difficult  to  believe  that  it  is  not  of  human  make.  This 
vase  has  a  top  to  it.  It  is  perforated  with  squares,  and 
is  often  a  prison  for  various  small  animals,  as  crabs,  which 
have  passed  into  the  interior  when  very  small  and  which 
are  now  too  large  to  escape,  only  their  claws  or  feelers 
being  seen  protruding  through  the  little  portholes. 

The  sponges  in  their  habits  show  a  variety  of  tastes. 
Many  grow  in  the  mud,  the  majority  upon  rocks.  On  the 
New  England  shores  there  is  one  of  a  yellowish  hue  which 
lives  in  the  sand.  It  is  very  light,  and  the  pores  are  so  fine 
that  the  sand  does  not  enter  them.  After  a  storm  on  Cape 
Cod  thousands  are  found  on  the  beaches,  blown  far  inshore. 
Black  and  pure  white  sponges  are  found  in  fresh  water  as 
well  as  in  salt.  They  increase  by  depositing  eggs.  In  one 
stage  of  their  development  the  young  (Fig.  14,  V.)  are  free- 
swimming  animals. 


III.     THE  JELLYFISHES 

AMONG  the  most  beautiful  and  fragile  of  all  animals  are 
the   singular  forms    which  we  call   jellyfishes   (Fig.    19). 


FIG.  19.  — A  jellyfish  (Pelagia). 
26 


THE   JELLYFISHES  27 

They  are  so  delicate  that  we  can  not  lift  them,  and  in  many 
instances  they  have  ninety-five  per  cent  of  water  in  their 
composition.  They  would  almost  seem  to  be  purely 
ornamental  did  we  not  know  that  they  fill  an  important 
niche  in  the  hall  of  nature,  constituting  almost  the  sole 
food  of  many  whales. 

The  jellyfishes  are  found  in  all  waters,  salt  and  even 
fresh.  They  may  be  seen  floating  near  or  at  the  surface, 
often  in  vast  numbers.  Sometimes  they  are  found  deep 
in  the  heart  of  the  upper  part  of  the  ocean,  often  in  such 
quantities  that  the  water  appears  to  be  filled  with  their 
graceful  shapes. 

In  the  Santa  Catalina  Channel  a  beautiful  lavender-hued 
form  is  common,  the  water  being  alive  with  them  at  times, 
and  I  have  seen  specimens  with  tentacles  streaming  behind 
them  an  estimated  length  of  twenty  feet,  the  entire  animal 
appearing  like  a  huge  comet  in  the  blue  sky  of  the  ocean. 
Mrs.  Agassiz  describes  a  jellyfish  called  Cyanea  which  was 
six  feet  across  its  disk  and  which  had  tentacles  over  one 
hundred  feet  in  length.  Specimens  have  been  seen  in 
East  Indian  waters  which  were  much  larger,  having  an 
estimated  weight  of  several  tons.  An  English  naturalist 
describes  one  which  stranded  in  India  and  gave  out  so 
vivid  a  light  at  night  that  the  natives  were  afraid  to 
approach  it ;  yet  large  as  was  this  monster,  a  few  hours  in 
the  sun  caused  it  to  disappear  or  literally  evaporate,  water 
forming  so  large  a  part  of  its  make-up. 

In  appearance  the  jellies  resemble  umbrellas,  dinner 
plates,  or  inverted  bowls,  from  which  depend  streamers  or 
tentacles  of  various  kinds  and  shapes,  often  richly  colored, 
especially  the  very  minute  forms.  The  mouth  is  in  the 


28 


THE   JELLYFISHES 


center,  the  eyes  are  around  the  edge  of  the  disk,  while 
the  huge  tentacles,  which  can  be  lifted  or  lowered  as  fancy 
dictates,  are  so  many  fishing  lines  by  which  this  jelly  finds 
its  food.  I  have  often  watched  them  floating  near  the  sur- 
face, the  delicate  vermilion-tinted  tentacles  floating  grace- 
fully about,  and  serving  as  so  many  tempting  baits.  Should 
a  sardine  or  other  small  fish  venture  to  attack  this  tempt- 
ing lure,  we  can  almost  imagine  it  struck  by  an  electric 


k 


FIG.  20.  —  Lassos  or  weapons  of  a  jellyfish. 

shock,  as  it  rolls  over  dead.  The  secret  is  very  easily 
discovered.  Lift  the  tentacles  with  the  hand  and  a  burn- 
ing sensation  will  be  experienced,  in  some  cases  very  pain- 
ful. The  tentacles  of  the  jellyfish  are  armed  with  stings. 

The  weapons  are  known  as  lassos  (Fig.  20).  Under 
the  microscope  the  tentacles  appear  to  be  filled  with  little 
cells  or  oblong  objects,  which  when  examined  are  found  to 
be  capsules  (C)  resembling  long  glasslike  bodies  in  which  is 


THE   JELLYFISHES  2Q 

coiled  a  thread.  This  latter  is  a  miniature  javelin,  and 
when  the  tentacle  of  a  jellyfish  is  seized  by  a  fish  or  an 
enemy,  tens  of  thousands  of  these  cells  literally  explode 
(D)  and  the  javelin  springs  out  like  a  Jack-in-the-box 
(A)  and  penetrates  the  intruder.  With  many  jelly  fishes 
the  effect  of  this  bombardment  is  a  stinging  sensation.  It 
paralyzes  small  fishes  which,  when  benumbed,  are  lifted  up 
by  the  tentacles  and  eaten. 


FIG.  21. —  Jellyfish  and  young  (Aurelia), 

The  jellies  develop  in  various  ways.  In  Figure  21  we 
see  a  common  and  very  beautiful  form  resting  on  the 
rocks.  Near  by  are  various  little  plantlike  creatures,  the 
young  jellies,  which  undergo  a  remarkable  series  of 
changes  in  their  growth  from  the  egg  to  the  adult  form. 
Minute  eggs  are  deposited  in  the  autumn,  which  drop  into 


30  THE   JELLYF1SHES 

the  crevices  of  the  rocks  and  soon  change  to  pear-shaped 
objects  which  attach  themselves  to  the  bottom.  Each  little 
jelly  pear  (Fig.  22)  divides  after  a  while  until  it  looks  like 


FlG.  22. —  The  development  of  a  jellyfish. 

a  pile  of  platters  one  upon  the  other.  The  upper  one  dies, 
and  the  rest  break  away,  each  becoming  a  separate  jelly- 
fish, which  ultimately  grows  to  be  a  giant. 

The  story  of  the  growth  and  development  of  these 
little  jellies  is  one  of  the  most  marvelous  pages  in  the 
history  of  nature.  In  some  forms  the  father  and  son  are 
entirely  different,  and  it  is  only  the  father  and  grandson 
that  resemble  each  other.  Not  only  this,  the  father  is  a 
seeming  plant,  while  the  son  is  a  free-swimming  jelly- 
fish of  great  beauty.  The  seeming  plant  is  in  reality  a 
hydroid  community.  The  buds  are  immature  jellyfishes 
which  finally  break  away  and  assume  the  typical  jellylike 
form,  free  swimmers  bearing  not  the  slightest  resemblance 
to  the  parent.  This  jelly  deposits  eggs  which  attach 
themselves  to  the  bottom  and  become  not  jellies  but  the 


THE   JELLYFISHES 


shrublike   form.     Hence  it  is  the  parent   and   its   grand- 
children that  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  one  another. 

No  conception  of  the  beauties  of  the  jellyfish  can  be 
formed  from  pictures,  or  from  the  stranded  "  sunfishes  " 
found  along  the  shore  at  low  tide.  In  the  water  they 
move  along  or  swim  by 
the  slow  pumping  or 
rising  and  falling  of  the 
umbrella  or  disk,  and 
are  of  all  the  colors  of 
the  rainbow.  Some, 
like  the  dark,  lavender- 
splashed  specimens, 
can  be  seen  from  a 
long  distance,  while 
others  are  almost  in- 
visible, in  fact,  are  like 
glass  or  crystal,  and 
interpose  no  obstacle 
to  other  forms  beyond. 
The  ocean  is  filled  with 
them ;  their  chaste 
shapes  presenting  one 
of  the  most  beautiful 
spectacles  to  be  observed  in  the  ocean  as  they  drift  about. 

Some  are  merely  great 
disks  towing  behind  them 
enormous  masses  of  pink 
fluted  jelly,  as  in  Figure 
23  ;  others  are  simple 

FIG.  24.  —  Flowerlike  jellyfish  (Lucernaria) .    flowerlike  forms  (Fig.  24). 


FIG.  23. —  A  large  jellyfish  (Cyanea). 


THE  JELLYFISHES 


If  these  graceful  forms  are  beautiful  during  the  day, 
what  shall  we  say  of  them  at  night,  when  they  blaze  and 
glow  with  marvelous  phosphorescent 
lights  of  yellow,  green,  and  gold. 
Gazing  into  the  ocean  these  great 
jellies  appear  like  comets  moving 
through  the  clear  atmosphere  of  the 
sea.  The  Cyanea  is  pale  blue.  One 
jelly,  called  Melicerta,  emits  a  pale 
golden  radiance,  and  Rhizostoma  (Fig. 
25)  gives  out  a  fixed  steely  blue  light. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  find  one  out  of 
all  this  marvelous  procession  of  living 
gems  that  does  not  emit  a  light  more 
or  less  peculiarly  its  own. 

If  this  phosphorescence  is  fascinat- 
FIG.  25.— jellyfish  (Rki-  ing  as  we  are  drifting  over  the  scene 
and  the  light  givers  are  not  alarmed, 
how  much  more  dazzling  is  the  display  when  the  sea  is 
beaten  into  foam.  In  a  certain  cave  on  the  coast  of 
Santa  Catalina  Island,  California,  the  sea  rushes  in  and, 
striking  the  rocks,  rises  like  a  wave  of  fire  and  bathes 
the  entire  interior  with  liquid  light  which  slowly  falls  in 
gleaming  rivulets  to  the  sea. 

But  the  most  magnificent  display  is  seen  at  Point 
Firmin  Light  during  a  storm.  Here  stands  a  lofty  rock 
pillar  which  has  breasted  the  sea  for  ages.  At  low  tide, 
when  a  storm  sea  strikes  the  ledge,  the  spray  rises  to  an 
altitude  of  three  hundred  feet,  and  spreading  as  it  rises, 
fairly  fills  the  air  with  a  gigantic  mass  of  silvery  light, 
that  on  a  dark  night  presents  an  appalling  spectacle  as  it 


THE  JELLYFISHES  33 

drops,  changing  its  shape  continually.  On  such  nights 
the  line  of  breakers  changes  into  silvery  flame,  while  the 
roar  resembles  a  cannonade,  fairly  shaking  the  earth.  In 
the  breakers  the  jelly  light  givers  are  breaking  up  and 
adding  fuel  to  the  seeming  flame.  Some,  as  Pelagia, 
are  luminous  over  their  entire  surface ;  in  others,  the 
light  is  confined  to  certain  parts,  which  are  either  fixed  or 
flashing  lights.  How  vivid  this  light  is  may  be  imagined 
when  it  is  said  that  a  single  jellyfish,  Aurelia,  when 
squeezed  into  a  glass  of  milk,  has  produced  a  light  by 
which  a  letter  was  read. 

This  peculiar  phosphorescence  is  not  their  only  interest- 
ing feature.  Nearly  all  the  jellies  afford  protection  to 
fishes,  crabs,  and  various  small  animals.  As  I  drifted  over 
the  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  almost  every  large  jelly 
that  I  examined  had  one  or  more  little  fishes  of  the  mack- 
erel family  up  among  its  lobes  or  tentacles.  As  they 
always  resembled  the  tentacles  in  tint  or  color,  a  delicate 
pink,  they  found  protection  amid  the  death-dealing  darts. 
The  most  remarkable  example  of  this  strange  companion- 
ship of  dangerous  jellies  and  delicate  fishes  is  found  in  the 
Physalia,  or  Portuguese  man-of-war  (Fig.  26),  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  all  the  animals  that  make  up  the  group 
to  which  the  jeilyfishes  belong.  Physalia  is  a  bubble  tinted 
with  purple  hues,  four  or  five  inches  long — a  fairy  ship 
of  pearly  tints.  On  its  upper  portion  is  a  sail  which  can 
be  raised  and  lowered,  while  from  the  lower  part  depends 
a  mass  of  beautiful  blue  or  purple  tentacles  which  some- 
times are  nearly  one  hundred  feet  in  length.  During  the 
summer  of  1902  I  found  them  on  the  outer  islands  of  the 
Texan  coast  in  great  numbers,  stranded  on  the  sands,  while 

HOL.  LO.  AN.  —  3 


THE  JELLYFISHES 


FIG.  26.  — The  Physalia. 


scores  of  others 
sailed  on  through 
the  pass  into  the 
quiet  waters  of 
Aransas  Bay. 
Among  the  is- 
lands of  the  Tor- 
tugas  group  I 
often  saw  them 
dotting  the  calm 
waters,  the  sun- 
light on  their 

delicate  tints  presenting  beautiful  combinations 
of  colors. 

It  may  appear  strange  that  one  of  the  most 
resplendent  of  animals  should  be  the  most  dan- 
gerous, yet  such  is  the  case.  The  attractive 
tentacles  which  drag  behind  the  Physalia  are 
deadly  to  almost  every  fish.  I  have  found  a 
hawkbill  turtle  weighing  twenty  pounds  caught 
and  benumbed  by  one ;  and  fishes  which  touch 
the  seeming  worms  roll  over  dead,  as  though 
stunned  by  an  electric  shock.  In  swimming  around  one 


THE   JELLYFISHES  35 

of  the  keys  of  the  reef  I  unwittingly  passed  over  the 
train  of  one,  and  if  I  had  been  alone,  I  doubt  if  I  could 
have  reached  the  shore,  so  terrible  was  the  burning 
pain.  A  year  afterward  my  flesh  had  the  appearance 
of  having  been  tattooed  in  fanciful  designs.  Yet  despite 
the  deadly  nature  of  this  maze  of  traps  and  lures,  a 
little  fish  lives  up  among  them,  and  what  is  more  remark- 
able, is  the  exact  color  of  the  tentacles,  a  rich  blue.  So 
exact  is  this  resemblance  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  see 
the  little  attendants,  but  if  you  lift  the  dainty  man-of-war 
by  its  sail,  they  rush  about  greatly  alarmed  by  their  ex- 
posed condition.  I  have  been  told  that  the  Physalia  eats 
these  attendant  courtiers,  but  in  hundreds  of  specimens 
which  I  examined  I  never  saw  the  little  fish  in  the  toils. 
They  swam  about  among  the  death-dealing  tentacles  with 
the  greatest  freedom.  The  secret  of  the  poison  lies  in  the 
lasso  cells  of  the  tentacles,  as  in  the  case  of  the  jellyfish, 
but  in  this  instance  they  are  much  more  poisonous.  Along 
the  southern  beaches,  where  the  Physalia  is  common, 
their  stranded  hulks  form  after  storms  a  windrow  of  mimic 
balloons  which  explode  like  torpedoes  beneath  the  feet,  as 
one  strolls  along  the  sands. 

No  branch  of  the  animal  kingdom  contains  more  beauti- 
ful and  radiant  forms  than  that  which  includes  the  Portu- 
guese man-of-war.  They  are  the  fairy  crafts  of  the  sea, 
graceful,  seemingly  formed  of  water  in  some  instances,  and 
nearly  all  so  delicate  that  they  usually  drop  to  pieces  when 
captured.  I  have  kept  all  for  a  brief  time  in  confinement, 
but  few  survived  more  than  a  few  hours. 

In  a  tank  at  Santa  Catalina  Island  I  had  at  one  time, 
besides  a  Portuguese  man-of-war,  the  delicate  Velella,  a 


THE  JELLYFISHES 


raft  of  sheeny  silver  which  floated  on  the  surface,  having  a 

silvery  sail  (Fig.  27),  beneath 
which  hung  short  tentacles  of 
a  brilliant  hue.  More  beautiful 
than  these  were  the  "  swimming 
bells "  —  strings  of  beautiful 
pink  and  crystal  bells  attached 

FIG.  27.-Velella.  ^Q     &     central     cord     (Fig>     2g) 

One  of  these,  Praya,  three  or  four  feet  long,  was  a  veri- 
table string  of  little  pumps,  each  of  which  pumped  water 
very  rapidly,  urg- 
ing the  entire  ani- 
mal along.  Each 
little  cup  seemed 
carved  in  glass  and 
colored  by  some 
artist,  so  perfect 
were  the  tints,  so 
delicate  was  the 
design.  Many  of 
these  forms  could 
be  seen  in  the 
ocean  only  by  fitful 
glances,  so  delicate 
were  they.  Most 
beautiful  of  all 
these  prisoners  in 
the  tank  was  one 
called  Physophora,  or  by  the  Italian  fishermen,  Boguetti. 
It  had  a  central  stem  like  the  glass  of  a  thermometer,  the 
bulb  being  uppermost  and  filled  with  a  gas  that  was  almost 


FlG.  28. —  A,  Praya  ;  n'n',  mouths  ;  ss,  swimming 
bells.     B,  single  polypite  (p),  enlarged. 


THE  JELLYFISHES  37 

exact  in  its  resemblance  to  mercury.  When  the  bulb 
was  full  the  animal  floated  at  the  surface.  I  have 
watched  the  animal  force  the  gas  down  by  repeated 
restrictions  of  the  tube  until  it  could  descend  beneath  the 
surface  with  ease.  On  the  sides  of  the  central  pillar  were 
numbers  of  beautifully  tinted  pumps,  the  locomotive  organs. 
Underneath  was  a  mass  of  lacelike  tentacles,  richly  tinted, 
purple  and  vermilion,  so  Physophora  was  one  of  the  most 
gorgeous  objects  to  be  imagined.  A  unique  feature  of  this 
animal  was  its  rapid  movements.  When  it  so  desired  it 
dashed  around  the  tank  with  great  velocity,  in  strange 
contrast  to  the  labored  movements  of  other  jellylike  forms, 
or  the  utter  and  complete  helplessness  of  Physalia,  Velella, 
or  Porpita.  These  latter  were  ships  at  the  mercy  of  every 
breeze,  the  Physalia  alone  being  able  to  anchor  itself  on  a 
lea  shore,  but  always  beaten  in  by  the  heavy  surf. 


IV.     THE   SEA   ANEMONES 

IN  the  last  century  many  of  the  animals  of  the  ocean 
were  considered  plants,  and  the  sea  anemones,  which 
appear  to  open  and  shut  like  flowers,  were  described  and 
painted  in  verse  and  prose  as  the  flowers  in  the  gardens  of 
the  sea.  The  sea  anemone,  common  in  almost  every  rocky 
pool,  and  found  everywhere  from  the  rocks  bare  at  low 
tide  to  the  greater  depths,  certainly  has  a  very  flowerlike 
appearance,  some  of  them  resembling  a  flower  without  a 
stem.  Petals  branch  out  on  every  side.  Some  are  large, 
some  small,  and  as  though  to  carry  out  the  idea  the  anemo- 
nes are  of  all  possible  shapes  and  colors.  Some  are  vivid 
red,  others  blue,  some  almost  white,  others  spotted  black 
and  white,  brown  and  barred.  Almost  every  color  is  seen. 
Some  are  tall  and  slender,  five  or  six  inches  high  ;  others 
are  flat.  Some  live  in  exposed  places,  as  the  luminous 
form  attached  to  the  shell  of  a  hermit  crab  in  Figure  29. 
Others  bury  themselves  in  the  sand  or  hide  beneath  large 
jellyfishes,  displaying  the  most  remarkable  tastes  and  fan- 
cies. Little  wonder  that  the  ancients  believed  that  they 
were  flowers.  But  touch  one,  and  presto  !  it  appears  to 
draw  within  itself,  and  becomes  a  mere  mound  in  place  of 
the  gorgeous  creature  which  spread  its  splendors  to  the 
current. 

The  sea  anemone  is  a  highly  organized  animal  several 
degrees  above  the  jellyfishes  in  the  scale  of  life,  yet  a 
very  humble  creature  after  all.  They  are  tubular  in  shape, 

38 


THE    SEA   ANEMONES 


39 


and  are  attached  to  the  rocks  by  a  sucking  disk  which 
clings  so  tightly  that  it  is  only  with  great  difficulty  they 
are  forced  off.  Yet  they  have  the  power  of  moving,  and 
slowly,  very  slowly,  drag  themselves  along.  Some  move 
perhaps  three  or  four  inches  a  day ;  but  this  would  be  a 


FIG.  29.  —  Sea  anemones  —  one  in  the  upper  right  hand  corner  is  a  luminous 
form  on  a  hermit  crab. 


long  journey  for  many  anemones,  and  the  greatest  number 
are  fixed  for  life  and  live  in  crevices  in  the  rocks.  The 
only  one  I  ever  saw  actually  moving  was  traveling  slowly 
across  the  glass  of  a  tank.  As  it  moved  small  pieces  of 
the  disk  appeared  to  be  torn  off  and  left  behind,  each  of 
which  grew  into  a  perfect  sea  anemone. 


40 


THE   SEA   ANEMONES 


On  the  upper  portion  around  the  rim  are  the  tentacles, 
armed  with  the  same  kind  of  ammunition  (Fig.  30)  found 
in   the   jellyfish,  namely,  lassos.      In  the  center 
is  the  mouth. 

We  may  imagine  the  anemone  feeding,  and  we 
may  easily  see  what  occurs.  The  anemone 
displays  its  beautiful  flowerlike  face ;  it  is  spread 
out,  waiting  for  prey.  A  shrimp  comes  swim- 
ming along,  and  innocently  drops  upon  the 
beautiful  flower.  The  moment  it  touches  the 
attractive  arms  it  is  pierced  by  the  lassos,  and 
unless  very  vigorous  is  soon  involved.  The  arms 
are  thrown  over  it,  the  body  shrinks,  grows  per- 
FiG.30.—  ceptibly  smaller,  the  shrimp  is  pressed  against 
dartSOof°a  tne  niouth,  and  finally  ingulfed,  and  the  once 
seaanem-  gorgeous  anemone  resembles  (Fig.  31)  a  mere 

mound,  a 
form  which  it  may 
retain  until  the  food 
is  digested. 

The  structure  of 
this  interesting  ani- 
mal may  be  observed 
by  glancing  at  Fig- 
ure 32.  The  stomach  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the 
animal,  and  is  held  in  position  by  a  number  of  partitions 
that  are  attached  to  the  side  of  the  anemone.  These 
form  little  rooms  in  the  body  of  the  anemone,  arranged 
about  the  stomach,  but  not  opening  into  it.  Each  room 
has  two  windows  leading  into  the  room  beyond,  hence 
all  are  connected,  and  at  the  bottom  all  are  connected 


FlG.  31.  —  A  sea  anemone  closed. 


THE   SEA  ANEMONES 


with  the  stomach.  Each  room  connects  upward  with  a 
tentacle,  which  is  hollow.  When  the  animal  is  swallow- 
ing, the  food  passes 
down  and  is  floated 
in  water  through  the 
various  rooms,  the 
hard  portions  being 
rejected  at  the  mouth. 
The  animal  has  a 
current  of  water  cir- 
culating through  it 
almost  continually, 
and  it  is  water  which, 
filling  them,  makes 
the  tentacles  stand 
upright  and  firm. 
Between  the  bases  of 
the  tentacles  are  the  eyes.  When  the  animal  closes  up, 
it  forces  the  water  out  of  its  mouth  and  is  able  to  shrink 
to  a  small  and  inconspicuous  object. 

Lowly  as  are  the  sea  anemones,  they  often  display  an 
amount  of  intelligence  that  few  would  give  them  credit  for. 
On  the  Florida  Reef  was  a  large  lagoon,  its  bottom  pure 
sand,  and  so  light  that  the  slightest  dark  object  was  easily 
observed.  In  the  sand,  buried  several  inches  deep,  lived 
a  large  anemone,  whose  normal  hue  was  a  dark  brown, 
but  when  expanded  was  almost  the  exact  color  of  the  sand; 
not  only  this,  its  tentacles  were  covered  with  bits  of  sand. 
In  a  word,  the  anemone  had  disguised  itself  so  that  large 
and  threatening  fishes  would  not  see  it,  as  they  swam 
along  in  search  of  food.  The  habit  of  placing  bits  of 


FlG.  32.  —  Section  of  an  anemone :  c,  tentacles ; 
g,  little  rooms;  d,  mouth;  g' ,  opening  between 
rooms ;  a,  sucking  deck  or  foot ;  e,  stomach. 


42  THE   SEA   ANEMONES 

shells  and  sand  on  the  tentacles  is  a  common  one.  I  have 
noticed  it  in  a  sand-living  form  on  the  California  coast. 
As  the  tide  went  out  and  left  the  anemones  dry,  they  were 
invariably  covered  with  sand  which  adhered  to  the  tentacles 
as  though  it  had  been  gummed.  To  accomplish  this  pro- 
tection from  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun,  the  anemone  had 
picked  up  the  atoms  of  sand  with  its  tentacles  and  dis- 
tributed them  over  its  surface.  As  there  were  thousands 
of  pieces,  the  amount  of  work  may  be  imagined. 

Anemones  are  found  in  many  strange  places.  One,  as 
we  have  seen,  rides  about  upon  the  back  of  a  hermit  crab ; 
another  is  so  often  found  on  the  top  of  an  ordinary  crab 
that  it  is  evidently  a  habit  of  the  anemone.  The  anemone 
thus  travels  about  with  its  host  and  shares  its  food.  In 
the  Indian  Ocean  a  German  naturalist  found  on  every  crab 
of  a  certain  kind,  which  he  caught,  a  sea  anemone  fastened 
upon  the  inside  of  the  large  biting  claw.  Thinking  it 
accidental,  he  caught  a  number  of  crabs,  but  nearly  all  had 
the  small  anemone,  which  was  so  placed  that  when  the 
crab  raised  its  claw  to  its  mouth  to  eat  and  tear  its  food, 
the  sea  anemone  was  in  a  position  to  obtain  a  full  share 
of  the  food.  Still  thinking  that  this  must  be  an  acci- 
dent, the  naturalist  placed  a  large  number  of  the  crabs 
bearing  the  sea  anemones  in  a  tank  and  removed  the 
anemones  with  a  knife,  placing  them  in  the  water.  The 
following  day  when  they  were  examined  every  crab  had  its 
attendant  again  upon  its  claw.  Again  the  experiment  was 
tried,  and  again  the  crabs  collected  their  curious  attend- 
ants. The  naturalist  now  cut  one  of  the  animals  into 
several  pieces,  and  even  then  the  crabs  attempted  to 
collect  them. 


THE    SEA   ANEMONES  43 

The  anemones  deposit  eggs  in  vast  numbers,  which 
change  into  strange,  free-swimming  animals  that  finally 
settle  upon  the  bottom  and  soon  grow  into  the  adult 
forms.  They  have  another  method  of  developing.  Singu- 
lar little  "  buds  "  appear  on  the  sides  and  base  of  the 
adult,  which  soon  resemble  the  parent.  The  anemone  is 
very  long-lived;  specimens  have  been  kept  for  nearly  a 
century.  They  also  have  a  marvelous  faculty  for  renewing 
themselves  if  injured.  If  one  is  divided,  sometimes  two 
anemones  will  be  the  result,  recalling  their  distant  cousin 
the  little  hydra,  which  when  turned  inside  out  receives  its 
food  and  eats  as  though  nothing  had  happened.  No 
amount  of  mutilating  appears  to  affect  its  various  portions, 
as  each  soon  develops  into  a  perfect  hydra. 

The  sea  anemone  is  a  common  form  of  the  aquarium. 
It  is  easily  secured  by  those  living  near  the  ocean,  forming 
a  most  interesting  pet,  taking  food  from  the  hand,  and  soon 
proving  itself  possessed  of  a  remarkable  appetite.  The 
anemones  are  among  the  great  purifiers  of  the  ocean, 
devouring  a  vast  amount  of  dead  matter  which  might 
pollute  the  water,  and  continually  pumping  the  water 
through  their  systems,  sifting  out  the  animal  life,  dead  or 
alive.  Aside  from  this,  the  anemones  are  chiefly  useful  as 
beautifiers  of  the  ocean.  In  the  Mediterranean  Sea  they 
are  sometimes  eaten  by  the  Italians  and  French.  Certain 
fishes  and  crustaceans  prey  upon  them. 


V.     THE   CORALS 

THE  real  gardens  of  the  sea,  the  "  Gulfs  enchanted 
where  the  siren  sings  and  coral  reefs  lie  bare,"  are  in 
the  tropics,  where  the  great  coral  reefs  extend  for  miles 
in  countless  shapes,  forming  branches,  heads,  fans,  and 
many  forms  which  never  fail  to  delight  the  eye  of  the 
observer.  For  many  years  I  lived  upon  a  coral  key  or 
island  in  the  center  of  a  coral  reef.  The  key  was  half  a 
mile  in  circuit,  and  was  made  up  of  coral  sand,  or  sand 
composed  of  ground  coral  and  shells.  It  was  just  above 
the  surface,  so  near  that  almost  anywhere  salt  water  could 
be  found  a  few  feet  below ;  yet  in  this  sandy  soil  cocoa- 
nuts,  bananas,  and  other  tropical  plants  grew  in  profusion. 
A  grove  of  bay  cedars  and  mangroves  added  to  its  attract- 
iveness and  gave  it  the  name  of  Garden  Key. 

The  history  of  this  reef  is  easily  told.  Ages  ago  there 
was  no  reef.  There  was  no  island,  but  perhaps  a  sub- 
marine plateau,  a  long  distance  below  the  surface.  It 
gradually  grew  by  the  dropping  of  the  minute  shells 
described  on  page  15.  After  many  ages  it  attained 
an  altitude  which  brought  its  summit  within  one  hundred 
or  two  hundred  feet  of  the  surface.  Now  its  growth  became 
more  rapid  as  a  new  factor  came  upon  the  scene.  The 
reef-building  corals  do  not,  as  a  rule,  thrive  or  grow  in 
water  deeper  than  two  hundred  feet,  and  nearly  all  prefer 
water  very  much  shallower.  So,  as  soon  as  the  submarine 
hill  entered  this  zone,  the  eggs  and  young  of  the  various 

44 


THE   CORALS  45 

reef-building  corals  (Figs.  33,  37)  obtained  a  foothold, 
and  the  growth  was  ever  upward,  countless  forms  aiding 
in  it.  The  lower  portion  was  continually  dying,  the 
animals  occupying  only  the  upper  story,  so  that  a  cap  of 
stone  was  being  formed  on  the  top  of  the  hill  which  after 


FIG.  33.  — Branch  coral  (reef  builder),  showing  polyps  expanded  and  withdrawn. 

many  years  reached  the  surface.  The  sea  now  broke  up 
the  tips  of  the  branch  coral.  They  became  ground  up. 
A  curious  seaweed  which  secreted  lime  appeared,  and  this 
and  the  ground  coral  and  shells  formed  a  muddy  flat 
which,  aided  by  various  objects  that  float  upon  the  ocean, 
constituted  a  miniature  island.  Now  something  which 


46  THE   CORALS 

resembled  a  cigar,  one  end  downward,  came  floating 
along.  If  we  could  have  examined  it,  curious  little  root- 
lets would  have  been  seen  growing  from  the  lower  por- 
tion. This  stranded  on  the  island,  and  the  little  cigar 
proved  to  be  the  seed  of  the  mangrove  tree;  its  roots 
grew  and  caught  in  the  mud,  and  soon  a  tree  appeared 
growing  on  the  new-born  island.  Its  roots  presented  a 
base,  about  which  sand  and  mud  rapidly  accumulated,  and 
so  the  key  or  island  grew  until  it  became  the  Garden  Key 
of  to-day. 

Such  is  the  history  of  an  ordinary  coral  island,  built  up, 
not  by  corals  alone,  but  by  countless  animals.  Even  to-day 
some  writers  describe  this  coral  animal  as  an  "  insect,"  but 
it  is  an  entirely  different  animal,  being  a  polyp,  so  closely 
related  to  the  anemones  that  very  few  can  distinguish 
between  them.  For  the  purpose  of  examination  we  may 


FIG.  34.  —  Mushroom  coral;  a  single  polyp  (Ctenactis),  one  fourth  natural  size. 

consider  a  coral  animal  as  a  sea  anemone  possessing  the 
faculty  of  taking  lime  from  the  sea  water  and  secreting  it 
in  the  little  rooms  which  we  have  found  existing  in  the 
anemones  (Fig.  32),  there  forming  a  little  platform,  then 


THE   CORALS 


47 


partitions  or  cells,  as  the  case  may  be.  In  Figure  33  is 
shown  a  section  of  branch  coral.  The  starlike  spots  are 
the  polyps  with 
their  tentacles  out- 
spread as  in  feed- 
ing. They  may  be 
considered  so 
many  anemones, 
each  resting  in  a 
little  cell,  and  all 
connected  by  a 
common  brown  or 
olive-hued  tissue. 
This  is  a  many- 
celled  coral,  while 
that  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 34  is  an  exam- 
ple of  a  single-celled  coral,  a  huge  anemone  with  a  frame- 
work of  lime.  These  single-celled  corals  are  often  found 
in  very  deep  water. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Garden  Key  on  the  Florida  Reef  there 
are  six  or  seven  keys,  each  almost  surrounded  by  a  deep- 
blue  channel.  On  the  east  a  long  fringing  reef  is  forming 
which  some  day  may  form  an  atoll  (Fig.  36).  In  this 
lagoon  are  acres  of  beautiful  branch  coral,  rising  two  or 
three  feet  from  the  bottom  in  a  mass  of  points  almost  bare 
at  low  tide,  and  at  the  very  lowest  tides  becoming  exposed 
and  dying.  At  certain  places  on  the  edges  of  channels 
are  vast  heads  of  coral  (Fig.  37),  some  being  four  feet  high 
and  six  or  seven  feet  across.  Many  of  these  are  hollowed 
out  into  great  vases  and  filled  with  beautiful  sea  fans,  the 


FlG.  35.  —  A  single  polyp  coral  (Caryophyllia). 


48  THE   CORALS 

Gorgonias,  in  yellow,  lavender,  and  brown,  while  in  and 
out  swim  fishes  of  beautiful  colors.  The  surface  of  these 
heads  is  often  dotted  with  objects  which  resemble  flowers 
of  gorgeous  hues,  red,  blue,  white,  and  spotted.  At  the 


FIG..  36.— Anatoli. 

slightest  alarm  or  jar  these  disappear,  showing  themselves 
merely  worms,  which  have  bored  into  the  coral,  the  flower- 
like  petals  being  the  breathing  organs.  Along  the  sides 
of  the  channels  the  groves  of  branch  coral  (Fig.  33)  dip 
down,  and  thirty  feet  below  the  surface  the  growth  is 
much  more  vigorous,  the  branches  often  being  three  or 
even  four  feet  in  length,  and  resembling  the  antlers  of  the 
elk. 

Wishing  to  see  how  deep  the  coral  descended,  I  had  a 
boat  held  on  the  edge  of  the  channel,  and  taking  a  heavy 
stone  in  my  hands  allowed  myself  to  sink.  The  stone 
carried  me  down  rapidly  for  perhaps  twenty  feet,  until  the 


THE   CORALS  49 

water  was  perceptibly  colder  and  the  light  very  dim,  yet 
as  far  below  me  as  I  could  see,  the  almost  perpendicular 
wall  of  coral  extended,  being  in  all  probability  sixty  feet 
in  height  and  almost  vertical.  As  I  swam  upward  not 
four  feet  from  the  jagged  points,  I  could  plainly  see  the 
beautiful  coral  with  parrot  fishes  garbed  in  brilliant  tints, 
poising  among  the  great  branches. 

The  coral  on  this  reef  grows  or  nourishes  more  or  less 
in  communities.  The  great  heads  are  found  in  groups, 
the  branch  coral  in  plantations,  if  the  word  can  be  used, 
in  the  center  of  the  lagoon  and  on  the  edge  of  the  deep 
channels.  On  a  shallow  point,  growing  among  seaweeds, 
I  found  small  heads  five  or  six  inches  long. 

In  the  surf,  where  it  piled  in  upon  the  reef,  grew  a 
beautiful  form  known  as  leaf  coral,  spreading  out  like 


FlG.  37.  —  Coral  head,  with  many  polyps  (Astrcea) . 

the  horns  of  the  moose  in  great  leaflike  shapes.  This 
crept  near  the  ground,  and  was  surrounded  by  its  cousins, 
the  Gorgonias,  in  lavender  and  yellow.  The  whole  pre- 

HOL.  LO.  AN.  —  4 


50  THE   CORALS 

sented  a  beautiful  appearance  when  seen  from  above 
through  a  water  glass  or  glass-bottomed  boat. 

In  most  of  these  corals  the  branches  were  covered  with 
the  small  cells  of  the  coral  animal,  made  up  of  thousands 
of  individual  polyps.  Others  again  had  very  minute  cells, 
yet  the  entire  head  might  weigh  a  thousand  pounds. 
Another  large  head  is  called  brain  coral,  as  the  animals 
are  arranged  in  deep  trenches  or  convolutions.  In  the 
star  coral  (Astraea,  Fig.  37)  the  polyps  resemble  stars  and 
are  much  larger  than  those  on  other  corals. 

Occasionally  I  have  found  a  branch  of  coral  on  which 
there  was,  perhaps,  a  bunch  of  eight  cells,  each  half  an 
inch  across,  the  group  resembling  a  bunch  of  flowers. 
These  were  generally  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  lagoon, 
where  the  water  was  fifteen  or  more  feet  deep,  and  there- 
fore out  of  reach  of  the  coral  tongs.  I  would,  therefore, 
dive  down  for  it,  the  coral  being  distinctly  visible  in  these 
clear  and  limpid  waters.  This  rose  coral,  as  we  called  it, 
was  the  work  of  a  few  polyps.  Another  kind  was  very 
delicate,  the  polyps  being  almost  invisible.  It  was  called 
pepper  coral,  as  when  tasted  it  burned  the  tongue  vio- 
lently. Still  another,  which  grew  in  heads  a  foot  or  two 
across,  had  a  peculiar  habit  of  floating  when  free  of  ani- 
mal matter.  Large  heads,  when  tossed  from  the  beach 
where  they  had  drifted,  went  sailing  away  like  boats. 

Still  another  coral  has  cells  at  short  intervals  up  the 
branch  ;  another  is  cup-shaped  with  a  single  polyp.  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  corals  (Fig.  38)  has  the  cells  of 
the  polyps  arranged  after  the  fashion  of  a  pipe'  organ, 
from  which  the  coral  takes  its  name,  while  the  polyp 
itself,  when  expanded,  resembles  a  daisy.  Formerly 


THE   CORALS  51 

corals  were  supposed  to  be  confined  to  the  warm  waters 
of  the  tropics,  but  this  is  true  only  of  the  reef  builders, 
which  require  a  temperature  not  lower  than  63°,  and  are 
rarely,  if  ever,  found  at  a  greater  depth  than  about  180 
feet.  Single  polyp  corals,  like  Fungia,  are  found  at  great 


A 

FlG.  38.  — Organ-pipe  coral  (Tubipora) :  A,  cell  tubes;  B,  polyp  expanded. 

depths  in  the  ocean,  and  certain  corals  grow  in  the  Santa 
Catalina  Channel  on  the  Pacific  coast.  In  the  Atlantic, 
as  far  north  as  Long  Island  Sound,  where  the  water  is 
often  icy  cold,  is  found  the  beautiful  Astrangia,  a  coral 
in  which  the  polyps  are  pure  white  and  about  five  one- 
hundredths  of  an  inch  in  length. 

In  a  general  way  we  have  passed  in  review  some  of  the 
typical  corals,  and  may  now  glance  at  their  manner  of 
growth.  If  we  cut  one  of  the  cells  of  a  coral  across,  we 
shall  have  a  figure  similar  to  that  shown  in  Figure  39. 
The  white  radiating  partitions  are  coral,  the  black  spaces 
are  rooms,  which  correspond  to  the  little  apartments  in 
the  anemone.  The  coral  develops  by  eggs  and  by  bud- 
ding, just  as  in  the  case  of  its  cousin,  the  anemone.  The 
eggs,  after  enjoying  a  free-swimming  life  for  a  while, 


52  THE   CORALS 

settle  upon  the  bottom  and  begin  to  secrete  lime.  They 
do  not  build  up  a  house  as  the  mythical  "  coral  insect "  is 
described  as  doing,  but  secrete  it  much  as  any  animal 
secretes  its  bones  or  shell.  As  the  water  flows  through 
the  animal  it  is  enabled  to  secrete  the  lime  dissolved  in  the 
water.  If  we  could  watch  every  step  of  the  growing  pro- 
cess, we  should  first  see  a  little  platform  of  lime  attached 
to  the  stone  or  object  upon  which  the  young  coral  animal 
has  dropped,  then  a  little  edge  or  rim  which  increases  in 


FIG.  39.  —  Sections  of  a  coral  cell. 

size  daily.  Out  from  this  rim  shoot  the  partitions,  as 
shown  in  Figure  39.  It  will  be  observed  that  they  do  not 
meet  and  join,  but  leave  a  place  in  the  center  for  the 
stomach.  Finally,  the  cell  is  completely  formed,  and  we 
have  a  perfect  cup  of  lime,  a  coral  cell  in  which  is  en- 
sconced the  anemonelike  coral  polyp.  Its  color  is  an  olive 
brown,  and  when  the  polyp  is  expanded  its  little  tentacles 
resemble  the  petals  of  a  flower.  With  these  it  catches 
food,  which  it  eats  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  do 
the  anemones.  If  this  cup  is  a  branch  coral,  soon  a  bud 


THE  CORALS  53 

appears  upon  the  side,  and  a  new  cup  or  cell  takes  shape. 
Then  another  is  added,  and  we  see  the  coral  enlarging, 
branching  out  either  by  budding  or  simply  dividing  until 
a  large  branch  is  the  result. 

This  growth  is  much  more  rapid  than  is  generally 
supposed.  The  brain  coral  has  been  known  to  grow  an 
inch  or  double  its  size  in  a  year,  and  branch  corals  grow 
six  or  eight  inches  in  this  time.  The  corals  and  reefs 
form  the  great  girders  of  the  globe.  The  one  off  Aus- 
tralia is  over  a  thousand  miles  in  length,  and  all  over 
the  world  are  found  fossil  reefs.  Thus  in  the  Helderberg 
Mountains  of  New  York  I  have  followed  and  traced  a 
coral  reef,  quite  as  wonderful  in  its  way  as  that  now  grow- 
ing and  reaching  out  in  Florida.  By  some  upheaving  of 
the  earth's  surface  it  has  been  pushed  up  into  the  air,  a 
monument  telling  of  the  wonderful  changes  in  nature  and 
of  the  time  when  the  waters  of  New  York  were  as  warm 
as  those  of  Florida. 

Side  by  side  with  the  corals  and  among  the  most  beauti- 
ful objects  of  these  submarine  gardens,  we  find  objects 
which  resemble  plumes  and  fans 
(Fig.  41).  These  are  called  Gor- 
gonias,  and  are  cousins  of  the 
corals.  They  resemble  fans  made 
up  of  a  fine  network  or  reticulated 
surface  (Fig.  40).  They  are  richly 
colored  yellow,  brown,  and  laven- 
der, those  of  the  latter  color  be- 
ing particularly  beautiful.  When  FIG.  40.  — Surface  of  sea  fan, 

enlarged. 

there  is  a  surf  they  can  be  seen 

waving  and  bending  gracefully,  like  the  limbs  of  a  tree 


54 


THE   CORALS 


FIG.  41.  —  Sea  fan  (Gorgonia). 


in  a  gale.  One  of 
the  best  known  of 
this  group  is  the 
red  coral  of  com- 
merce, found  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea 
and  the  Indian 
Ocean.  When 
alive,  the  coral 
base  or  branch  is 
covered  with  a 
crust  or  skin  in 
which  the  animals 

live,  connected  one  with   another.     The  polyp  stands  very 

high  and  is  white.     The  crust  itself,  the  solid  lime  base, 

is   formed   of   a  number   of   minute 

parallel  tubes.     This  coral  is  dredged 

by  collectors  in  the  deep  water  and 

is    scraped    and    polished    until    the 

beautiful  red  color,  so  highly  prized 

for  jewelry,  is  brought  out. 

Closely  allied  to  the  corals  are  the 

sea  pens   (Fig.  42)  which   are   com- 
mon in  almost  all  waters,  and  among 

the  most  beautiful  forms.     They  are 

communities  of  polyps.     In  the  sea 

pen  the  polyps  are  arranged  along 

the  branches  so  that  a  fluffy  fan  or 

an  ostrich  plume  is  imitated.     I  have 

taken  these  animals  from  deep  water 

when    they   measured    perhaps    five        FIG.  42.— Sea  pen. 


THE   CORALS 


55 


inches  in   length ;    but  an   hour   later  when   placed  in   a 

tank  the   insignificant  animal   had  expanded  until  it  was 

five  times  as  large,  and  beautiful  beyond  description   in 

its  garb  of  delicate  pink.     At  night  it  was  a  blaze  of  light 

which    flashed    from    branch    to 

branch,    from     polyp    to    polyp. 

When    irritated    in    a    perfectly 

dark  room  this  specimen  created 

so     brilliant     a     phosphorescent 

light   that    I    could    almost   read 

large  print  by  it. 

In  the  deep  sea  lives  a  giant 
form,  the  Umbellularia,  four  or 
five  feet  high ;  and  there  are 
many  more,  all  of  which  add  to 
the  lights  of  the  deep  sea.  Near 
allies  of  these  attractive  forms 
are  the  comb  bearers,  free- 
swimming,  jellylike  forms  of 
great  beauty  and  grace.  I  have 
kept  the  radiant  Pleurobrachia  in  a  tank  where  I  observed 
its  wonders  and  beauties.  The  one  known  as  Veretillum 
(Fig.  43)  is  very  beautiful  and  a  marvelous  light  giver. 


FlG.  43. — Veretillum,  a  wonder- 
ful light  giver. 


VI.     THE   STONE   LILIES 


A  NUMBER  of  years  ago  I  took  a  number  of  walking 
trips  over  that  section  of  New  York  state  known  as  the 
Catskill  Mountain  region.  The  start  was  made  at  the 

month  of  Catskill  Creek, 
which  was  followed  up 
into  the  mountains  until 
we  came  to  a  peculiar 
light,  slate-colored  rock. 
This  rock,  where  the 
stream  had  washed  the 
earth  away,  was  dotted 
with  little  disks  (Fig. 
44),  which  being  harder 
than  the  rock  itself  had 
been  weathering,  and 
stood  out  in  high  relief. 
A  mile  or  two  from  the 
river  the  rocks  were 
covered  with  these  disks, 
in  fact,  seemed  to  be 
made  up  of  them. 
Some  were  large,  some 
small,  as  if  millions  of  pipestems  had  been  cut  into 
sections  and  scattered  about. 

These  disks  told  an  interesting  story.  We  read  by 
them  that  ages  ago  the  region  now  covered  by  farms 

56 


FIG.  44.  —  Sections  of  fossil  crinoid  stems, 
Catskill  Creek. 


THE   STONE   LILIES 


57 


and  summer  resorts  was  the  bottom  of  a  shallow,  tropical 
sea.  We  could  go  further  and  describe  even  the  appear- 
ance of  the  bottom  of  that  sea,  and  what  grew  and  lived 
there.  Scattered  about  on  the  rock  were  myriads  of  shells, 
corals,  teeth,  fish  bones,  and  a  variety  of  objects,  all  the 
remains  of  animals  which  once  lived  in  this  ancient 
ocean. 

We  find  that  the  little  disks  fit  together,  and  collecting 
them,  pile  them  up,  forming  a  stem  a  foot  or  more  long. 
Among  them  we  find  one  which 
is  attached  to  a  rootlike  object, 
and  this  is  placed  at  the  bottom. 
Near  by  we  find  a  flowerlike  or 
budlike  form  (Fig  45),  which 
may  well  serve  as  the  flower  of 
this  stem,  and  so  we  add  it  and 
produce  a  striking  resemblance 
to  the  crinoid  shown  in  Figure 
46.  This  is  an  interesting  and 
beautiful  animal  which  was  one 
of  the  commonest  forms  of  the 
ancient  seas.  It  grew  in  groves 
and  masses,  as  we  may  see  by  the 
vast  numbers  strewn  in  the  old  ocean  bed ;  and  when  they 
died,  they  were  scattered  here  and  there  and  hardened 
into  the  old  bed. 

The  crinoids  resemble  lilies  so  closely  that  they  are 
called  stone  lilies.  They  are  animals,  however,  related  to 
the  starfishes.  They  have  a  long  stem,  with  rootlike 
branches  to  support  it,  and  are  capped  with  what  appears 
like  an  inverted  starfish,  and  is  literally  a  starfish  perched 


FlG.  45.  —  Fossil  crinoid. 


THE   STONE  LILIES 


FlG.  46.  —  A  living  crinoid  (Pentacrinus) . 


upon  a  stem.  Fos- 
sil crinoids  have 
long  been  known, 
and  beautiful  speci- 
mens may  be  seen 
in  all  our  museums, 
but  the  fact  that 
they  still  live  upon 
the  globe  is  a 
modern  discovery. 
It  is  said  that 
Agassiz  stated  that 
he  expected  to  find 
them  alive  off  the 
coast  of  Cuba,  and 
when  a  deep  lo- 
cality was  dredged, 
up  came  the  living 
crinoids,  or  forms 
.almost  identical 
with  them.  Since 
then  they  have 
been  dredged  in 
great  numbers  by 
all  the  great  deep- 
sea  explorers. 
Some  have  long 
stems,  some  short. 
On  one,  the  Comat- 
ula,  when  it  is  full 
grown,  the  crinoid 


THE   STONE  LILIES  59 

leaves  its  stalk,  and  lives  a  free,  roving  life  after  the  fashion 
of  many  starfishes. 

The  crinoid,  with  its  long  slender  stem,  its  branching 
tendrils,  its  flowerlike  top,  is  one  of  the  most  graceful  of 
all  animals,  as  might  be  imagined  from  the  drawing. 
Examine  the  crinoid  as  closely  as  one  may,  it  still 
resembles  a  stone  lily,  and  only  its  slow  movements, 
contracting  and  folding,  suggest  life.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
a  very  complicated  animal.  It  consists  of  a  central  body, 
protected  by  numerous  plates,  as  seen  in  Figure  46.  From 
the  edges  extend  five,  or  often  more,  branches  or  arms,  and 
from  them  in  turn  branch  other  arms,  so  that  the  top  re- 
sembles a  feather  or  brush,  from  which  they  are  called 
feather  stars.  In  the  center  of  the  stars  is  a  mouth,  food 
being  caught  by  the  many  branching  tentacles.  The  his- 
tory of  the  development  of  crinoids  is  very  interesting. 
They  pass  through  several  curious  stages  in  the  course  of 
growth  from  infancy  to  old  age,  and  some  of  the  shapes 
are  so  curious  that  no  one,  not  familiar  with  them,  would 
suspect  that  here  was  a  growing  crinoid. 


VII.     THE   STARS   OF   THE   SEA 

BENEATH  almost  every  rock  along  the  New  England 
coast,  and  under  the  branch  coral  in  the  tropics,  we  may 
find  a  typical  star-shaped  animal,  and  by  dredging  off- 
shore, thousands  are  brought  up,  even  from  very  deep 


FlG.  47.  — Basket  starfish. 

water,  showing  that  the  stars  of  the  sea  are  almost  as 
plentiful  as  they  appear  in  the  sky  above.  These  star- 
fishes are  of  all  shapes,  kinds,  and  colors.  Some  are  a  foot 
or  more  across,  huge,  domed  fellows  with  rough  backs, 

60 


THE   STARS   OF   THE   SEA 


6l 


showing  little  if  any  signs  of  life  (Fig.  48)  ;  others  have  five 
long  legs  and  a  small  body  (Fig.  49).  Others,  again,  are 
perfectly  round  and  have  many  rays,  while  some  have 
few  rays  which  are  round,  like  the  body  of  a  snake,  and 


FIG.  48.  —  Lower  surface  of  starfish  ( Goniaster) ,  showing  suckerlike  feet ;  a  slow 

mover. 

which  they  whip  and  slash  about,  displaying  great  activity. 
Once  in  reaching  beneath  a  coral  branch  to  find  a  certain 
shell  which  I  knew  lived  there,  my  hand  grasped  some- 
thing which  felt  like  a  ball  of  snakes,  each  of  which  closed 
about  it,  producing  a  most  disagreeable  sensation.  I  drew 

UNIVERSITY)! 

OF    _  J 


62 


THE   STARS   OF   THE   SEA 


it  out  and  found  it  was  one  of  the  starfishes,  common  on 
many  shores  as  the  basket  starfish  (Fig.  47).  As  I  lifted 
it  up  it  was  a  veritable  mass  of  coiling  arms,  a  Medusa's 
head  of  the  sea,  coiling  and  uncoiling.  It  was  merely  a 
starfish  in  which  each  arm  branches  in  two  parts,  each 


FlG.  49. — A  deep-water  starfish  (  Ophiocoma) ,  a  rapid  mover. 

branching  out  into  two  again  with  the  result  pictured,  a 
confused  mass  of  arms.  As  I  lifted  my  capture  above 
water  and  it  felt  the  air  it  began  to  shed  its  arms,  so  that 
it  fairly  rained  pieces  of  starfish,  and  before  I  reached  the 
boat,  but  a  few  feet  away,  all  that  remained  was  the  body. 
My  starfish  had  almost  committed  suicide. 


THE   STARS   OF   THE   SEA  63 

The  starfishes  are  found  everywhere  in  the  tropics. 
Every  bunch  of  coral  contains  scores  of  them.  Many 
resemble  spiders,  and  are 
a  vivid  red  hue,  others 
are  bronze  or  brick  red, 
while  still  others  are 
barred  or  spotted,  as  in 
Figure  50.  They  are 
all  interesting  creatures, 
especially  our  common 
Eastern  starfish,  which  is 
found  in  little  caves  at 
low  tide,  clinging  to  the 

m°  FIG.  50.  — A  brittle  starfish. 

walls.       It    is    not    very 

attractive  in  appearance,  and  apparently  not  disconcerted 

by  being  left  by  the  tide. 

If  we  take  a  common  starfish  and  turn  it  upon  its  back, 
we  observe  that  the  lower  portion  is  covered  with  short 
tentacles,  each  having  a  little  sucker  on  the  end.  These 
are  the  feet  of  the  starfish,  by  which  it  walks  or  moves. 
In  the  center  of  the  body  is  the  mouth  leading  into  the 
stomach  which  reaches  into  each  ray.  The  eyes  are  at 
the  tip  of  each  ray.  On  the  back  of  the  star  we  find  a 
little  red  disk  with  a  rough  surface.  This  is  really  a  sieve 
for  straining  the  water  which  pours  in  through  a  little 
canal  encircling  the  mouth  and  leading  off  into  each  arm, 
carrying  water  to  each  one  of  the  myriads  of  feet. 

The  feet  move  independently,  and  the  starfish  walks 
much  faster  than  would  be  imagined.  This  can  be  illus- 
trated by  the  sudden  appearance  of  the  starfish,  in  Long 
Island  Sound.  One  night  when  the  oyster  men  left  the 


64  THE   STARS   OF   THE   SEA 

beds  no  starfishes  were  seen.  The  following  day  they 
were  there  in  such  vast  quantities  that  it  was  estimated 
they  covered  the  entire  bed,  two  or  three  deep,  and  tens 
of  thousands  of  dollars  were  lost  by  the  destruction  of  the 
oysters. 

How  an  oyster  can  be  opened  by  a  soft,  helpless  star- 
fish would  seem  a  mystery ;  but  it  is  a  very  easy  matter. 
The  starfish  drags  itself  over  the  shell  and  places  its 
mouth  at  the  end,  extending  its  long  arms  downward, 
literally  swallowing  part  of  the  shell.  It  is  supposed  to 
eject  some  secretion  into  the  shell  that  causes  it  to  open. 


VIII.     OCEAN    HEDGEHOGS 

(  The  Echini) 

ON  the  Florida  Reef  and  off  the  rocky  shores  of  Cali- 
fornia one  of  the  most  conspicuous  among  the  rock-living 
animals  is  the  black,  long-spined  Echinus.  In  the  water  it 
looks  like  a  huge  pincushion  (Fig.  51)  filled  with  black 


FIG.  51.  —  Sea  urchins  burrowing  in  the  rocks. 
HOL.  LO.  AN.  —  5  65 


66 


OCEAN    HEDGEHOGS 


pins,  points  outward,  and  every  crack  and  crevice  is  filled 

with  them.  When 
found  on  the  beach, 
despoiled  of  their 
spines,  they  resem- 
ble bleached  shells, 
and  are  then  known 
in  Florida  as  sea 
eggs  (Fig.  52). 
The  long  black 
spines  are  continu- 
ally moving  up  and 

FIG.  52-Sea  urchin  without  its  spines.  down>     ^     CQQ^ 

tute  the  armament  of  the  sea  urchin,  and  an  effective 
one  to  all  except  very  large  fishes,  as  some  rays,  which 
have  pavementlike 
teeth  fitted  particu- 
larly for  such  not 
especially  dainty 
morsels.  The  spines 
emit  a  bluish  secre- 
tion which  is  left  in 
the  wounds  made 
by  them,  and  is  more 
or  less  poisonous. 
This  common  sea 
urchin  is  a  type  of 
hundreds  found  in 

almost  all  Seas  from        FIG.  53.  —  Short-spined  sea  urchin,  showing  the 
t     .,  biting  teeth, 

very   shallow   water 

to  the  abysmal  regions  of  the  ocean. 


OCEAN    HEDGEHOGS 


67 


Some  sea  urchins  have  short  spines  (Fig.  53)  and  are 
almost  pure  white  ;  some  are  flat  like  the  sand  dollars, 
the  spines  feeling  like  sandpaper,  so  short  and  fine  are 
they.  The  latter  are  small,  and  appear  to  be  covered  with 
waving  filaments.  Many  have  spines  like  needles  ;  in  others 
the  latter  are  blunt,  clublike  organs.  Many  other  strange 
variations  are  seen  in  an  exhibition  of  the  various  kinds  in 
some  museums. 
None  are  more 
remarkable  than 
those  having  five 
holes  through 
them  like  Chi- 
nese money 
(Fig.  54> 

The  urchins 
are  very  closely 
allied  to  the 
starfishes,  espe- 
cially in  struc- 
ture.  They 
have  the  same 
kind  of  feet, 
and  among  the 
spines  is  seen 
a  singular  handlike  organ  common  to  the  starfishes.  It 
has  three  fingers  (Fig.  55)  and  a  short  stem,  and  is  con- 
stantly in  motion,  its  office  appearing  to  be  to  clean  the 
body.  Foreign  objects  are  taken  up  by  this  peculiar  hand 
and  passed  on  from  one  to  the  other  until  they  are  finally 
dropped  off.  Here  is  the  same  madreporic  plate  or  sieve, 


FlG.  54.  —  Flat  sea  urchin,  "  sand  dollar." 


68 


OCEAN    HEDGEHOGS 


and  the  structure  of  the  Echinus  (Fig.  56)  is  very  similar 
to  that  of  the  starfish.  The  former  has  a  long  set  of  jaws, 
hence  is  a  biter  and  nipper,  while  the 
starfish  is  a  sucker.  The  shell  of  the 
Echinus  is  really  a  beautiful  object  when 


FIG.  56.  —  Structure  of  the  Echinus  :  a,  mouth;  o, 
anus;  c,  stomach;  /  madreporic  plate;  d,  intestine;  /, 
ambulacra  ;  v,  heart ;  z,  spines. 


FIG.  55.— Handiike    divested  of  the  spines  and  bleached  in 

organ    of   sea   urchins      tne  sun    appearing  as  pure  white  as  Coral 
and  starfishes. 

after  bleaching.  It  is  made  up  of  about 
six  hundred  hard,  limy  plates  arranged  in  double  rows, 
which  contain  about  thirty-seven  hundred  pores  through 
which  the  feet  protrude.  Despite  this  marvelous  supply 
of  feet,  or  organs  of  locomotion,  the  Echinus  is  a  very 
slow  walker.  The  spines  number  four  thousand  or  more, 
and  each  one  works  on  the  ball-and-socket  plan,  is  hollow, 
and  moves  readily  in  all  directions. 

The  sea  urchin  is  produced  from  eggs.  The  young  pass 
through  some  remarkable  changes  before  they  assume  the 
adult  form.  In  one  of  these  changes  they  appear  as  free- 


OCEAN   HEDGEHOGS 


69 


a' 


swimming  animals  (Fig.  57),  and  resemble  anything  but 
the  perfectly  developed  Echinus.  Some  of  the  sea  urchins 
of  deep  water,  as  the  Hermi- 
aster  and  others,  carry  their 
young  in  pouches,  the  spines 
being  folded  over  them  to 
hold  them  in  place.  They 
rarely  move  from  the  crevice 
on  the  rock  which  they  select. 
They  can  be  found  in  the 
same  place  for  months  to- 
gether, and  have  a  limited 
power  of  wearing  out  the  rock. 
How  the  Echinus  grows  in- 
closed in  so  hard  a  shell 
might  be  a  puzzle  did  we  not 
know  that  the  shell  is  covered  with  a  skin,  each  plate  being 
literally  surrounded  by  it.  This  skin  secretes  lime,  taking 
it  from  the  water  and  depositing  it  on  the  edges  of  all  the 
plates,  so  that  the  animal  grows  rapidly  and  symmetrically. 
The  Echini  are  the  scavengers  of  the  ocean,  and  they  aid 
in  maintaining  the  clearness  and  purity  of  the  water.  In 
some  countries  certain  kinds  are  eaten,  and  one  species 
is  valuable  for  its  spines,  which  are  used  as  slate  pencils. 


A 

FIG.  57.  —  Young  sea  urchin. 


IX.     THE  SEA  CUCUMBERS 


ONCE,  when  poling  my  boat  over  the  great  coral  reef  of 
the  outer  Florida  Keys  I  came  upon  a  little  plot  of  sea- 
weed in  shallow 
water  which  was 
so  covered  with 
huge  sea  cucum- 
bers (Fig.  58)  that 
it  would  have  been 
an  easy  matter  to 
fill  the  boat.  They 
were  from  six  to 
twelve  inches  in 
length,  two  or  three 
inches  across,  and 
bore  a  striking 
resemblance  to 
actual  cucumbers. 
In  color  they  were 
brown,  and  when 
lifted  from  the  wa- 
ter they  slowly 
moved  or  twisted, 
sending  out  a 
stream  of  water. 
They  might  have  been  made  of  leather,  so  far  as  any  evi- 
dence of  life  was  concerned,  and  were  so  tough  that  a. 

70 


FIG.  58.  —  Sea  cucumber,  showing  its  breathing 
organs. 


THE   SEA   CUCUMBERS  71 

spear  thrust  into  one  had  to  be  cut  away,  so  tenacious  was 
the  hide  of  this  singular  sluglike  animal.  Taking  a  large 
one  from  the  bottom,  I  placed  it  in  a  glass  jar  standing  on 
the  deck  of  my  boat,  whereupon  a  very  singular  occurrence 
took  place.  When  the  air  began  to  be  exhausted  in  the 
water  of  the  glass,  out  from  the  sea  cucumber  came  a  long, 
slender  fish,  so  ghostly  and  ethereal  that  when  it  died,  as 
it  did  almost  immediately,  I  placed  it  upon  a  piece  of 
newspaper  and  read  print  through  its  body.  The  fish 
was  known  as  Fierasfer,  and  it  lived  in  the  long  intestine 
of  the  sea  cucumber.  Since  then  the  fish  has  been  closely 
studied  in  the  Naples  Aquarium,  where  it  had  the  same 
habit,  and  where  the  attendant  naturalists  saw  the  fish 
come  out,  and  return  tail  first. 

The  great  sea  cucumber  of  Florida  may  be  taken  as  a 
type  of  all  the  group  which  differ  mainly  in  size,  color,  and 
shape.  Some  are  very  short  and  have  a  decided  flat  lower 
surface ;  others  are  long,  fragile,  and  easily  broken ;  and 
many  are  brilliant  in  color.  Nearly  all  are  famous  for 
their  singular  and  often  beautiful  breathing  organs  which 
protrude  from  the  mouth  and  bear  the  most  remarkable 
resemblance  to  plants.  In  many  specimens  of  the 
Atlantic  Pentacta  (Fig.  58),  kept  in  an  aquarium,  this 
resemblance  was  very  marked,  as  the  animals  at  once 
buried  themselves  in  the  sand  from  which  beautiful  plants 
seemingly  grew,  being  merely  the  breathing  organs  of  the 
wily  mimic.  These  organs  vary  much  in  size  and  beauty. 
In  some  species  they  are  very  elaborate,  in  others  they 
are  simple,  flowerlike  objects.  The  greatest  variation  is 
found  in  them.  In  one  which  I  observed  the  tentacles 
resembled  small  toadstools. 


72  THE   SEA  CUCUMBERS 

Many  of  the  sea  cucumbers,  or  holothurians,  are  very 
sensitive,  and  when  captured  will  often  cast  off  their  various 
organs.  This  does  not  indicate  the  death  of  the  animal, 
as  they  are  soon  replaced.  A  singular  trait  of  the  long 
glasslike  Synapta  is  that  of  cutting  itself  in  two  when 
starved.  At  first  an  end  of  the  animal  is  dropped,  then 
another  piece,  and  this  is  continued  until  nothing  but  the 
mouth  remains,  everything  having  seemingly  been  sacri- 
ficed to  save  this  portion.  If  food  is  now  supplied,  this 
animal  will  soon  recover  and  assume  its  normal  condition. 

Synapta  has  no  feet,  their  place  seemingly  being  taken 
by  peculiar  limy  spicules,  shaped  like  anchors  (Fig.  59), 
which  are  deeply  buried  in  the  skin.  In  its  structure  the 
sea  cucumber  resembles  its  cousins  the  starfishes  and  sea 

urchins,  and  standing  on  end, 
may  be  compared  to  an  elongated 
sea  urchin.  Nothing  can  be 
more  uninviting  than  these  ani- 
mals, and  when  dried  the  flesh 
has  the  consistency  of  leather. 
FIG.  59.— Anchoriike  spicules  of  Yet  the  sea  cucumber  is  highly 

regarded  by  the  Chinese  as  a 

delicacy,  and  the  Malays  have  a  large  fleet  engaged  in  the 
business  of  gathering  and  preparing  them.  The  animals 
are  collected  and  dried,  then  smoked  and  packed  in  bales 
and  sent  to  China.  They  may  be  found  in  any  of  the 
markets  of  these  people,  in  San  Francisco  and  New  York. 
About  the  Pacific  island  of  Santa  Catalina  they  are  very 
commonly  seen  through  the  bottom  of  the  glass- 
bottomed  boats,  lying  in  the  seaweed  and  imitating  it  in 
color. 


X.     THE  WORMS 


FEW  groups  of  animals  differ  so  much  in  general  appear- 
ance as  the  worms.  Some  resemble  miniature  snakes  ; 
others  are  flat,  some  are  like  needles,  one  lives  in  a  cell ; 
another  stays  in  the  tissue  of  some  animal,  while  certain 
others  infest  the  soil.  Almost  everywhere,  on  land  and  in 
the  sea,  under  nearly  all  conditions,  we  shall  find  these 
remarkable  creatures,  which  may  be  briefly  described  as 
animals  having  a  head,  tail,  and  upper  and  lower  surfaces, 
and  made  up  of  a  great  many  rings,  or  segments.  In 
them  we  find  an  approach  to  the  higher  animals.  Thus 
they  have  a  heart,  with  red  or  green  blood,  breathing 
organs,  though  many  breathe  through  the  body  walls,  and 
a  nervous  system  consisting  of  a  minute  brain  in  the  upper 
portion  of  the  small  head. 

All  the  worms  deposit 
eggs,  and  nearly  all  are 
remarkable  for  the  won- 
derful changes  through 
which  they  pass  before 
they  attain  maturity. 
This  is  well  illustrated 
in  a  planarian  worm 
(Fig.  60),  which  seems  to 
require  the  presence  of 
another  animal  to  enable 

...  .  FIG.  60.  —  Development  of  a  planarian 

it  to  complete  its  develop-  worm, 

73 


74 


THE   WORMS 


FlG.  61.  —  A  flukeworm. 


ment.  The  little  creature  which 
breaks  from  the  egg  (A)  is  a  free- 
swimming  creature  surrounded  by 
cilia  or  hairlike  swimming  organs. 
By  these  it  moves  through  the 
water,  and  with  strange  instinct 
searches  for  some  animal,  generally 
a  snail,  which  it  enters.  There  it 
becomes  surrounded  by  a  sack  and 
produces  a  little  creature  called  the 
nurse  (b),  which  soon  grows  to 
resemble  the  tadpolelike  creature 
(c),  which  is  rilled  with  small  egglike 

or  germlik'-i  objects  (a).     It  now  changes  into  a  wormlike 

creature  (D),  in  which  the 

germs    have    assumed    the 

shape   of   worms   (a),    and 

soon  breaks  forth  as  a  little 

form  with  a  tadpolelike  tail 

(E) — a  remarkable  perform- 
ance. But  the  end  is  not 

yet ;     another     animal     is 

necessary  to  complete  the 

change.     Swimming  about, 

the  little  creature  is  swal- 
lowed by  some  animal  in 

drinking,  and  finds  its  way 

to  the  liver,  where  it  lives, 

the   tail   being   lost.      The 

animal    now   changes    into 

a     perfect     flukeworm    (F),  pic.  6?.  —  Thorn-headed  worm, 


B 


THE  WORMS 


which  finally  leaves  the  animal  or  host  and  lays  eggs  in 
the  water ;  these  pass  through  the  same  wonderful  trans- 
formation. The  flukeworms  (Fig.  61)  are  disagreeable 
flat  creatures,  not  often  seen,  the  marine  forms  attaining 
large  size. 

Many  of  the  worms  are  parasites  living  upon  other 
animals.  The  thorn-headed  worm  (Fig.  62)  is  an  example. 
Who  has  not  heard  the  story  of  the  living  horsehair  ? 
Almost  every  country  newspaper 
has  told  the  story,  that  some 
farmer  after  washing  his  horses 
had  found  several  hairs  taken 
from  the  horse's  tail  which 
"were  alive,"  and  to  prove  the 
story  the  farmer  produces  the 
"living  horsehair"  which  is  a 
remarkable  imitation  of  the  long 
hair  of  a  horse's  tail.  But 
the  hair  is  a  well-known  worm 
(Fig.  63)  called  Gordius  aquati- 
cus.  It  is  almost  exactly  like 
a  horse's  hair,  two  or  three  feet 
in  length,  and  found  coiled  up  in 

ponds  or  snugly  tucked  away  in  FlG  63  _ Supposed  horse. 
the  interior  of  a  beetle  or  grass-  hair  worm  (Gordius)  •.  A,  adult; 

i_  i  •  i_  •    ^          •     i  B> young  (larva)« 

hopper  which  it  has  seized  upon 

as  a  host.  The  deadly  Trichina  spiralis  belongs  to  this 
group  (Fig.  64).  If  the  vinegar  bottle  is  examined,  in 
what  is  popularly  called  the  "mother"  at  the  bottom, 
still  another  member  of  the  family  will  be  found.  This 
is  a  minute  round  worm  almost  invisible  to  the  naked 


THE  WORMS 


eye.     It  is  very  active  and  disagreeable  to  contemplate, 
living  in  the  sour,  fiery  liquid. 

In  this  group  are  many  dangerous  worms,  as  the  guinea 
worm  of  remarkable  length.  While  nearly  all  worms  are 
disagreeable  creatures,  a  few  are  very  beautiful.  Such 


FIG.  64.  —  Trichina  spiralis :  a  deadly  worm 
from  pork. 


FIG.  05.  —  The  rotifer. 


are  the  rotifers  or  wheel  animalcules  (Fig.  65).  These 
are  the  smallest  and  most  active  of  the  tribe  of  worms. 
To  be  found  they  must  be  sought  in  a  drop  of  standing 
water,  and  as  they  are  rarely  ever  over  one  thirty-sixth 
of  an  inch  in  length,  a  microscope  is  necessary.  Among 
the  throng  of  wonderful  creatures  one  will  be  seen  seem- 
ingly rolling  over  and  over  like  a  barrel,  a  minute  whirling 


THE  WORMS  J7 

Dervish  of  the  water.  The  rotifers  assume  a  variety  of 
shapes.  One  is  a  typical  worm,  another  darts  along  by  the 
aid  of  two  circlets  of  cilia  which  vibrate  so  rapidly  that  the 
illusion  of  rolling  is  produced.  No  more  wonderful  crea- 
tures than  these  little  worms  are  known,  and  they  well 
repay  the  study  required  to  know  them  well.  Some  of 
them  are  fixed  and  unable  to  swim,  and  many  of  the  stories 
of  spontaneous  generation  are  due  to  the  faculty  these 


FIG.  66.  —  Polyzoans :  i,  colony  in  plant  form  ;  2,  3,  cells  of  the  worms  magnified. 

minute  rotifers  (often  but  three  one  hundredths  of  an  inch 
in  length)  have  of  enduring  almost  any  amount  of  drying. 
Thus  if  a  pond  is  dried  up  by  the  sun,  the  rotifers  seem  to 
be  able  to  lie  dormant  for  a  long  time,  and  when  a  rain 
falls  in  the  locality  for  the  first  time  in  years,  the  pool  is  at 
once  peopled  with  rotifers  which  awaken  from  their  long 
sleep.  When  it  is  known  that  Ehrenberg,  the  German 
naturalist,  found  that  a  certain  species  produced  sixteen 
million  young  in  less  than  two  weeks,  it  is  easy  to  under- 


78  THE  WORMS 

stand  how  quickly  a  new  pond  might  become  rapidly 
equipped  with  a  large  population. 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  myriads  of  worms  are  seen 
daily,  but  are  not  known  as  such.  These  are  the  minute 
and  beautiful  Polyzoans  (Fig.  66).  They  are  marine  animals, 
grow  in  colonies,  and  look  like  delicate  seaweeds.  They 
are  often  called  moss  animals.  At  the  seashore  we 
shall  find  the  rocks  and  particularly  the  broad  fronds  of 
kelp  near  shore  often  encrusted  with  a  delicate,  beautiful 
tracery  of  pure  white.  In  California  I  have  found  the 
kelp  leaves  at  the  surface  covered  with  it,  having  the 

appearance  of  being  coated 
with  silver.  Beneath  the  glass 
it  develops  into  a  beauti- 
ful tracery  filled  with  cells. 
When  magnified  these  cells 
are  seen  to  resemble  Fig- 
ure 67,  each  one  having  its 
worm,  which  seems  to  blossom 
like  a  flower.  These  worms 
are  minute  imitators  of  corals, 
as  they  form  a  corallike  struc- 
ture, the  worms  having  the 
faculty  of  secreting  lime,  as 

do  the  corals,  yet  they  are  much  higher  in  the  scale  of 
life.  One  of  the  common  seaweeds  of  the  seashore  is  the 
sea  mat  or  Flustra.  No  one  would  suspect  it  of  being 
other  than  a  beautiful  marine  plant  with  large  leaves  or 
branches,  and  many  a  collection  of  "  seaweed,"  preserved 
through  many  years,  contains  the  Flustra  arranged  among 
the  real  "  plants  "  of  the  sea.  But  Flustra  is  merely  a 


THE  WORMS 


79 


colony  of  worms.  The  minute  spots  seen  upon  it  when 
enlarged  beneath  a  microscope  resemble  so  many  cells  of 
carbonate  of  lime  secreted  by  the  worms  of  the  community 
or  colony.  Another  species  of  Flustra  is  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 68,  and  a  part  of  the  skeleton  of  the  colony  or  of  each 
cell  is  the  peculiar  bird's  head  which  has  a  beak.  This 
beak,  even  after  the  death  of  the  worm,  is  seen  to  open 


FIG.  68.  —  Bird's-head  Flustra:  i,  Flustra  mat,  showing  cells;  2,  diagram  of  a 
single  worm  (Polypide) ;  3,  bird's-head  process. 

and  shut,  snapping  continually,  much  quicker  than  the  little 
pincerlike  objects  we  have  seen  in  the  sea  urchins.  The 
use  of  the  so-called  bird's  head  is  not  well  understood. 

This  Flustra  (Fig.  69)  is  very  beautiful,  forming  a  deli- 
cate little  plantlike  form  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  size. 
But  the  crowning  glory  of  these  worms,  as  shown  in  the 
figure,  is  the  circular  crown  of  tentacles  by  which  food 
is  grasped  as  it  passes  by.  Any  one  who  has  collected 
fossils  in  what  is  known  as  the  Trenton  limestone  is 


So 


THE   WORMS 


familiar  with  the  little  fossil  shell  called  Lingula,  of  which 
two  thousand  species  are  known.  Curiously  enough  this 
little  shell  has  come  down  to  us  to-day,  and  in  Figure  70 
we  see  the  living  Lingula  of  our  waters  with  its  long  stem 
by  which  it  fastens  itself  in  the  sand.  Lingula  resembles 
a  small  clam  shell,  has  two  perfect  shells,  and  probably 
holds  a  place  in  many  collections  as  a  shell ;  yet  Lingula 


FIG.  69. —  Sea  mat:  I,  sea  mat,  natural  size;  2,  3,  section  of  the  animal  much 

enlarged. 

is  a  worm  which  secretes  a  two-valved,  unhinged  shell, 
that  is  an  almost  perfect  imitation  of  a  bivalve  mollusk. 
In  the  Santa  Catalina  Channel,  California,  from  water 
six  hundred  feet  in  depth,  I  have  dredged  shells  resem- 
bling those  in  Figure  71.  They  hung  upon  rocks  in 
clusters,  and  were  very  striking  in  their  rich  colors  of 
yellow,  red,  etc.  In  shape  these  Terebratulas,  also  com- 
mon among  the  fossil  shells,  resemble  ancient  Roman 


THE  WORMS 


81 


FIG.  70.— 
Lingula. 


lamps,  and  hence  are  called  lamp  shells.     They  too  are 

worms,  however,  and  many  more  shell  makers 
called  brachiopods.  The 
"wick,"  a  muscular  stalk 
or  byssus,  becomes  firmly 
attached  to  some  object  at 
the  bottom.  But  in  the 
instance  of  the  little  Lingula 
the  stalk  or  anchor  rope 
merely  passes  between  the 
curious  shells.  If  the  latter 
are  opened,  we  find  a  singu- 
lar bridge  or  limy  frame- 
work which  is  intended  to 
support  the  soft  parts  of  the 
bridge,  a  very  conspicuous 
feature  of  which  are  what  are  called 
arms,  long,  ribbon  like,  fringed  pro- 
cesses (a)  which  are  coiled  up  in  the 
shell  and 

serve  as  breathing  organs  and 

to  obtain  food  as  well.     They 

can  be  extended  some  distance 

from  the  shells.     The  curious 

frame  upon  which  they  rest 

is  well  shown  in  Figure  72. 

It  is  on  record   that   during 

the  Sikh  rebellion  an  entire 

English  regiment  was  put  to 

flight  by  a   force  of  worms. 

The    troops    were    marching 

HOL.  LO.  AN.  —  6 


D 


FIG.  71.  —  Lamp  shells, 
showing  gills. 


FiG.  72.  —  Brachiopod,  showing 
supporting  loop. 


82 


THE   WORMS 


through  a  forest  when  land  leeches  began  to  fall  from 
every  branch  and  leaf,  dropping  in  such  vast  numbers 
that  the  men  were  almost  crazed  by  the 
vicious  bloodsuckers  ;  hence  they  broke 
and  ran  for  clear  ground,  where  they 
could  rid  themselves  of  the  terrible 
pests.  Semper,  the  naturalist,  states 
that  he  was  driven  from  the  forests  of 
Luzon  by  these  leeches,  which  fell  upon 
him  like  dew.  The  ordinary  leech  of 
commerce  (Fig.  73)  belongs  to  this 
group.  It  has  a  sucking  mouth,  which 
bears  three  teeth.  It  was  once  much 
used  by  physicians  for  bleeding  pur- 
poses, in  fact,  the  animal  derives  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  medical  men 
in  England  were  formerly  called  leeches. 
The  leech  had  a  high  commercial  value, 
over  seven  million  being  used  in  Lon- 
don in  a  single  year,  valued  at  ten 
dollars  a  thousand.  Leech  raising  is 
a  regular  business  in  Russia,  Bohemia, 
and  Hungary. 

The  best  known  of   all  worms,  per- 
haps,   because    all    boys    are    fond    of 
FIG      —The leech    nsnmg>  *s  tne  angleworm  or  earthworm 
of  commerce:  a,  ante-    (Fig.   74),  which    can  be   found  where 

rior  sucker;    b,   poste-  _,,  . 

rior  sucker;  4  stomach;    the  earth  is  rich  and  moist.     This  worm 
*.  glands  of  the  skin.       ^  rea]ly  a  beautifui  object,  being  highly 

iridescent,   flashing  a  thousand   hues  in    the  sunlight  to 
which  it  has  a  decided  objection,  as  the  heat  soon  dries 


THE   WORMS 


it  up.  The  ringed  or  segmented  arrangement  is  easily 
observed  as  it  moves  along.  By  this  marvelous  arrange- 
ment a  worm  can  either  stretch  itself 
out  to  an  inordinate  length,  or  telescope 
itself  until  it  can  hardly  be  recognized 
as  a  worm.  There  are  several  interest- 
ing features  about  earthworms  which 
ordinarily  escape  the  notice  of  even 
the  angler.  One  is  its  feet,  which 
differ  from  those  of  any  other  animal. 
They  are  very  minute,  and  are  bristles, 
each  segment  or  ring  being  supplied 
with  four.  Another  peculiarity  of  the 
earthworm  is  that  instead  of  hunting 
out  food  in  the  earth  it  swallows  the 
earth  as  it  meets  it,  allowing  the  animal 
matter  to  be  absorbed  within.  It  then 
casts  up  the  earth,  which  are  the  little 
mounds  of  mold  found  in  the  grass  or 
turf  every  morning.  This  habit  has 
made  the  worm  a  valuable  aid  to  the 
farmer  in  preparing  the  soil,  filling  it 
with  tunnels  and  constantly  bringing  new  earth  to  the  sur- 
face and  turning  it  over.  The  amount  of  earth  moved  in 
this  way  was  made  a  special  study  by  Charles  Darwin. 
In  the  year  1842  he  spread  a  field  with  broken  chalk,  and 
after  twenty-nine  years  examined  it  and  found  that  the 
chalk  in  that  time  had  been  buried  seven  inches  by  the 
worms. 

This  gives  us  some  idea  of  how  important  a  factor  these 
humble  creatures  are,  working  mainly  at  night,  in  burying 


FIG.  74.  —  Earth- 
worm :  c,  egg ;  d,  young 
escaping  from  egg. 


84  THE   WORMS 

the  works  of  man.  It  is  evident  that  in  two  or  three 
centuries  portions  of  buildings  could  be  concealed.  In 
England  numbers  of  ancient  Roman  villas  have  been 
discovered,  beautiful  floors  and  foundations  of  ancient 
buildings  which  have  been  lost  to  sight  by  being  covered 
by  these  night  workers.  To  give  an  adequate  idea  of 
the  work  they  accomplish,  Darwin  says  that  the  amount 
of  vegetable  mold  brought  to  the  surface  in  a  single  year 
amounts  to  ten  tons  to  a  single  acre.  They  rarely  de- 
scend below  six  feet,  and  Darwin  estimated  that  in  fav- 
orable localities  there  are  100,000  in  every  acre.  In  New 
Zealand  348,480  have  been  found  in  a  very  rich  acre. 
The  worms  eat  the  earth,  and  drag  leaves  and  soft  twigs 
into  their  holes  at  night.  They  plant  seeds  and  bury 
stones.  Some  of  the  casts  of  giant  worms  of  India  are 
a  foot  in  length.  They  live  entirely  beneath  the  ground, 
lining  their  burrows  with  very  soft  fine  earth,  which 
appears  to  be  powdered  for  the  purpose.  All  their  opera- 
tions are  carried  on  at  night,  when  they  come  to  the 
surface  and  eject  the  casts.  They  have  a  habit  of  lying 
near  the  surface  at  the  entrance  of  their  burrows,  a  fact 
which  the  birds  have  discovered,  robins  and  mocking 
birds  particularly  being  very  clever  in  hunting  them  out. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  these  worms  is 
their  phosphorescence,  which  I  have  found  is  more  bril- 
liant than  that  emitted  by  any  other  animal.  Crossing  an 
orange  grove  in  southern  California  one  dark  and  rainy 
night  in  January,  I  stumbled  over  a  clod  of  earth,  and  if 
I  had  kicked  a  mass  of  live  coals,  the  result  could  not 
have  been  more  marked,  as  flashes  of  vivid  light  darted 
in  every  direction  with  the  earth,  caused  by  several  earth- 


THE   WORMS  85 

worms  which  had  exuded  so  much  phosphorescent  matter 
that  it  had  pervaded  the  entire  mass  of  surrounding  soil. 
The  phenomenon  on  a  small  scale  can  often  be  seen  in 
southern  California,  especially  in  winter,  when  the  ground 
is  moist  and  wet. 

Probably  the  most  beautiful  of  all  worms  are  those  of 
the  sea,  the  marine  forms  found  everywhere  from  the 
mud  banks  to  the  long  fronds  of  kelp  washed  by  the 


FIG.  75.  —  Marine  worm  (Cirratulus). 

foaming  sea.  Perhaps  the  most  gorgeous  creature  taken 
from  deep  water  is  Aphrodite,  several  inches  long,  an  inch 
across,  arid  about  the  size  of  a  mouse.  The  worms  are  pro- 
vided with  an  array  of  iridescent  bristles,  so  beautiful  as 


86 


THE   WORMS 


to  appear  artificial,  blazing  with  golden  lights.  Some  of 
these  worms  are  covered  with  strange  and  brilliantly  colored 
streamers,  as  Cirratulus  (Fig.  75).  Others  are  long  and 
slender,  as  Nereis  (Fig.  76),  a  very  common  form  along- 
shore. It  is  sought  after  by  fishes  with  good 
appetites,  and  often  caught,  despite  the  fact 
that  it  has  four  eyes,  four  hundred  paddles, 
and  fierce  jaws  for  seizing  prey.  Nereis 
lives  in  the  sand  in  a  tunnel.  It  has  a  habit 
of  coming  out  at  night  and  swimming  abroad, 
when,  creating  a  blaze  of  light,  it  becomes 
a  very  conspicuous  object  and  is  quickly 
caught  by  some  wandering  fish.  These 
worms  are  among  the  most  brilliant  of  all 
light  givers;  not  alone  for  the  intensity  of 
light,  but  for  its  variety  in  tint  and  color. 
The  most  remarkable  light  givers  are  Poly- 
noe,  Syllis,  Chaetopterus,  and  Polycirrus. 
The  first-mentioned  emits  a  green  light  at  the 
attachment  of  each  scale.  In  the  second 
the  feet  are  light  givers  and  emit  a  blue 
light.  In  the  third  the  light  blazes  on  the 
back  at  the  tenth  joint  alone.  The  last  is 
a  worm  of  fire,  the  strange,  little  understood 
light  blazing  over  its  entire  surface,  a  vivid  blue. 

I  was  once  sitting  on  the  shore  of  Avalon  Bay  in 
southern  California  when,  in  the  darkest  corner  in  the 
shadow  of  a  high  cliff,  I  saw,  two  hundred  feet  away, 
what  appeared  like  candle  lights  floating  upon  the  sur- 
face. Rowing  a  boat  to  the  lights,  I  found  that  each 
one  came  from  a  spot  of  phosphorescence  floating  on  the 


FIG.  76.— A 
marine  worm 
(Nereis). 


THE   WORMS 


surface.  When  it  moved,  as  it  often  did,  phosphorescence 
streamed  away  in  its  wake.  When  taken  in  my  hand  the 
latter  became  bathed  with  the  light  which  ran  from  the 
invisible  animal.  I  succeeded  in  capturing  one  entire  light, 
but  could  not  make  out  the  animal.  Soon  I  noticed  lights 
upon  the  bottom  in  water  five  feet  deep.  They  appeared 
to  be  as  large  as  saucers,  but  grew  rapidly  in  size  until  they 
were  as  large  as  dinner  plates,  then  the  yellow  light  gradu- 
ally diminished  until  it  was  not  larger  than  a  hazelnut,  and 
came  wriggling  upward  in  a  zigzag  of  fire,  finally  reaching 
the  surface  and  resting,  as  one  of  the  peculiar  lights  I  had 
seen  so  far  away.  I  captured  several,  and  in  the  morning 
found  that  my  light  giver  was  a  minute  sea  worm  not  half 
an  inch  in  length.  When  discovered,  the  little  animal  was 
leaving  its  burrow  or  cave  in  the  sand  for  a  nightly  swim 
at  the  surface. 

Many  of  the  most  beautiful  of 
the  marine  worms  are  cell  builders 
(Fig.  77).  In  some  the  worms 
secrete  a  tube  of  carbonate  of 
lime.  In  others  the  den  is  made 
of  bits  of  sand.  I  found  on  the 
Florida  Reef  many  remarkable 
examples  of  the  latter.  The  nest 
or  tube  was  built  among  the  sea- 
weed, several  inches  above  the 
bottom,  and  would  naturally  be 
a  conspicuous  object ;  but  here  the  intelligence  of  the 
little  creature  is  seen,  for  it  covers  the  outside  of  the 
column  with  the  plates  of  a  lime-secreting  seaweed,  which 
look  like  shingles,  and  mounts  upon  the  upper  portion 


FIG.  77.  —  A  tube-secreting 
worm. 


88 


THE   WORMS 


of  the  column  a  green  bit  of  seaweed.  This  is  glued  to 
the  tube  and  so  arranged  that  it  falls  over  the  entrance 
and  closes  it,  thus  serving  the  purpose  of  a  door  and 
making  the  tube  mimic  a  bit  of  sea  grass.  The  worm  lifts 
the  grass  door  when  it  comes  out. 


FIG.  78.  —  A  group  of  tube-secreting  worms  {Serpulce). 

One  of  the  most  familiar  forms  is  Serpula  (Fig.  78), 
whose  tubes  wind  in  and  out  in  every  direction.  No  garden 
of  pansies  gives  a  greater  variety  of  tints  than  did  a  mass  of 
these  radiant  creatures  that  I  found  on  a  floating  spar 
in  the  Pacific  at  Avalon  Bay.  But  touch  these  "  flowers  " 
or  jar  them  and  they  disappear  like  magic,  leaving  a 
hole  closed  by  a  little  door,  which  is  formed  by  a  part 
of  the  worm  that  thus  defies  all  intruders. 


XI.     THE   TWO-VALVED    SHELLS 

THE  beautiful  objects  which  we  know  as  shells,  and 
which  form  ornaments  in  many  a  home  far  distant  from 
the  sea,  are  the  coverings  of  a  group  of  animals  called 
mollusks.  They  are  found  in  all  seas,  many  upon  land, 
and  in  fresh-water  streams,  and  are  among  the  most  at- 
tractive of  all  natural  objects,  so  much  so  that  many  per- 


G 


FIG.  79.— The  oyster:  A,  muscle;  B,  mantle;   C,  gills;  D,  labial  palpi;  E,  hinge; 
F,  mouth ;   G,  liver  and  stomach ;  H,  heart. 

sons  devote  their  entire  lives  to  their  collection,  and  many 
others  much  time  to  the  study  of  their  habits.  It  is  rare 
to  find  a  new  shell,  so  well  have  these  shell  hunters 
searched  the  waters  of  the  world.  Such  collections,  es- 
pecially if  complete,  are  very  valuable,  and  many  of  the 
great  museums  have  paid  thousands  of  dollars  for  them 

89 


90  THE   TWO-VALVED   SHELLS 

The  mollusks  or  shells  present  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
worms.  They  have  no  joints,  are  soft,  seemingly  without 
form,  and  are  very  helpless  creatures.  The  body  is  en- 
veloped in  a  muscular  coat  or  mantle,  as  shown  in  the 
oyster  (Fig.  79).  They  have  a  nervous  system,  and  a 
heart  (H)  which  pumps  colorless  blood.  Some  have  a  foot 
for  locomotion  and  eyes  more  or  less  well  developed.  The 
oyster  represents  a  large  group  which  have  two  shells, 


FlG.  80.  —  Anatomy  of  snail :  a,  mouth;  b,  foot;  c,  anus;  a?,  lung;  e,  stomach; 
/  intestine ;  g,  liver ;  h,  heart ;  i,  aorta ;  /,  gastric  artery ;  k,  foot  artery ;  o,  lung 
and  heart  artery. 

called  bivalves.  In  Figure  80  we  see  the  animal  portion 
of  the  common  snail,  which  illustrates  another  group  with 
but  one  shell.  These  are  called  univalves.  To  the  bi- 
valves belong  the  shells  best  known,  the  oysters,  clams, 
scallops,  pectens,  pearl  oyster,  razor  shell,  and  many 
others,  of  which  the  oyster  is  the  most  familiar.  The 
mantle,  the  soft,  delicate  lining,  is  the  shell  maker,  and 
not  only  forms  it,  but  repairs  damages  to  it,  piling  up  layer 
after  layer  of  pearly  matter  called  nacre.  As  there  is  a 


THE   TWO-VALVED   SHELLS 


mantle  on  each  side,  two  values  are  secreted.     The  sharp 

portion  of  the  oyster  is  called  the  beak.     Here  the  growth 

of  the  shell  begins,  and  here 

are     the     marvelous    valves 

which  fit  with  such  accuracy. 

These  complicated  parts  are 

easily  seen  in  the  clam  (Fig. 

81).      The    hinge    is    joined 

by  teeth  (c,  d,  d,)  which  fit 

into  cavities  on  the  opposite 

valve,   while   the  valves   are 

held   together   by  a   perfect 

hinge,  a  horny  ligament  (//) 

that  tends  to  open  the  shell 

or  throw  the  valves  apart. 
In  the  interior  of  all  shells 

are    seen    certain    scars;    in 

others  a  purple  mark.    These 

marks  (e,  e,)  indicate  the  location  of  a.  strong  muscle  by 

which  the  clam  or  oyster  closes  its  shells  and  keeps  them 

closed  with  such  rigidity. 
In  opening  oysters  the 
man  severs  this  muscle 
and  the  shell  opens, 
forced  apart  by  its  lig- 
ament. This  explains 
why  most  shells  found 
on  the  beach  are  wide 
open.  The  curious  co- 
lumnar objects  in  rows 

are  the  gills  or  breathing  organs  of  the  oyster,  and  are 


FlG.  81.  —  Bivalve  shells  :  a,  beak; 
kt  base ;  b,  b,  hinges ;  c,  d,  d,  teeth ;  n, 
ligament;  e,  e,  adductor  muscles;  /, 
lines  of  growth ;  ft  pallial  line. 


FlG.  82.  — Cilia  or  oars  of  a  mollusk,  highly 
magnified. 


92  THE   TWO-VALVED   SHELLS 

covered  with  little  oars  (Fig.  82),  or  cilia,  which  move  to 
and  fro,  continually  sweeping  the  currents  of  water  along, 
bearing  oxygen  and  food.  The  former  is  taken  up  by  the 
gills  to  purify  the  blood,  and  the  latter  is  swept  into  the 
mouth  located  near  the  lungs. 

There  is  great  variety  in  the  hearts  of  shells.  In  the 
oyster  (Fig.  79)  it  is  composed  of  one  auricle  and  one 
ventricle ;  but  in  other  shells  the  heart  may  be  three- 
chambered,  or  there  may  be  two  distinct  hearts,  each  hav- 
ing two  chambers.  The  eyes  of  the  shells  are  very  minute 
and  are  situated  along  the  mantle.  Those  of  the  pecten 
are  very  beautiful  and  are  distinctly  visible,  resembling 
gems  or  emeralds. 

The  clams  (Fig.  83)  differ  from  the  oysters  in  having 
a  pronounced  foot  (/)  which  protrudes  from  the  large  end 
of  the  shell;  and  with  it  the  animal  digs  its  burrow.  It 


ex,  tn 


f  m  .<; 

FIG.  83.  —  A  clam  :  ft  foot ;  m,  mantle ;  s,  siphon. 

also  hears  indirectly  by  its  foot,  as  its  ears  are  in  this 
organ,  little  transparent  sacs  containing  a  clear  fluid  in 
which  floats  a  glassy  globule.  The  clam  also  has  a  siphon 
(s),  which  in  the  common  clam  is  very  long.  It  has  a 
black  head  or  tip  and  the  clam  may  rest  some  distance 
down  in  its  hole  and  take  in  water  through  its  siphon, 


THE   TWO-VALVED    SHELLS  93 

which  is  double-barreled.     One  opening  (in.)  receives  water 

containing  food  and  oxygen ;   the  other  (ex.)  expels  the 

water.     In  strolling  along  the  sands  at  low  tide  one  often 

sees  a  spurt  of  water  shoot  out  of  a  hole,  and  may  assume 

that  a  clam  has  been 

alarmed     and      has 

retracted  its  siphon 

so  suddenly  that  it 

has    shot    a   stream 

of  water  above  the 

surface.     The  shells 

.  FlG.  84.  —  Free-swimming  young  of  a  bivalve. 

increase  by  eggs,  the 

oyster  depositing  a  vast  number,  which  at  first  are  curious 
little  free-swimming  objects  (Fig.  84)  paddling  by  the  aid 
of  cilia  or  whips,  but  soon  attaching  themselves  to  the 
bottom  and  taking  the  oyster  form. 

The  oyster  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  bivalve  to  man, 
being  a  favorite  article  of  food,  for  which  $1,500,000  is  paid 
annually  in  New  York  alone.  Thousands  of  men  find 
employment  collecting  them  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 
In  this  country  the  most  valuable  oyster  beds  are  in  the 
vicinity  of  New  York,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Shrewsbury 
River,  in  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  at  various  points  along- 
shore to  Florida,  where  there  are  large  banks  at  the  mouths 
of  the  rivers.  In  watching  the  excavation  of  a  cellar  at  the 
town  of  Mayport  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  John  River  I  saw 
oyster  shells  thrown  up  as  deep  as  the  men  went.  The 
town  is  built  on  an  ancient  oyster  bed.  Among  the  old 
shells  numerous  pieces  of  pottery  have  been  found,  show- 
ing that  the  early  natives  frequented  the  spot.  The  living 
oyster  bed  here  to-day  is  some  distance  out  in  the  stream. 


94 


THE   TWO-VALVED    SHELLS 


When  sailing  up  a  small  river  in  Maine  some  years  ago, 
I  found,  about  ten  miles  from  its  mouth,  a  mound  of  oyster 
shells  thirty  or  forty  feet  high.  The  river  appeared  to 
have  cut  the  bed  in  two,  and  out  of  the  top  of  the  mound, 
which  was  of  solid  shells,  grew  a  tree  which  must  have 
been  a  century  old.  I  believe  there  are  no  oysters  on 
the  Maine  coast  to-day,  and  the  great  pile  was  accumulated 
ages  ago  when  Maine  had  oyster  beds  and  the  Indians 


FlG.  85.  —  Pearl  oysters. 

carried  the  oysters  ten  miles  up  the  river  to  this  spot 
which  must  have  been  the  site  of  an  ancient  Indian  town 
or  city.  The  pearl  oyster  is  another  valuable  shell 
(Fig.  85).  It  is  common  in  warmer  waters.  Near  La 
Paz  in  the  Gulf  of  California  is  a  famous  fishery,  which  is 
owned  by  the  government  and  farmed  out.  In  Ceylon  it 
is  estimated  that  1 7,000,000  oysters  are  destroyed  to  obtain 
$80,000  worth  of  pearls.  The  shells  are  also  very  valua- 


THE   TWO-VALVED   SHELLS  95 

ble,  being  made  into  buttons  and  various  other  objects. 
Liverpool  is  the  great  receiving  port  for  these,  and  many 
tons  are  used  annually.  In  diving  for  pearls  the  Cey- 
lonese,  who  are  able  to  remain  beneath  the  water  several 
minutes,  place  as  many  shells  as  possible  in  a  basket  and 
then  ascend,  leaving  the  crew  to  haul  the  basket  up.  In 
Lower  California  many  divers  of  to-day  go  down  in 
armor. 

Pearls  are  generally  valued  according  to  their  symmetry 
and  color.  Some  are  perfect,  and  when  of  large  size  bring 
vast  sums.  One  of  the  shahs  of  Persia  owned  a  neck- 
lace in  which  the  pearls  were  perfect  and  as  large  as  hazel- 
nuts.  The  pearl  is  the  result  of  the  oyster's  attempts  to 
protect  itself  from  injury.  If  we  should  take  one  of  these 
beautiful  pearl  oysters  and  with  a  gimlet  bore  a  hole 
through  the  shell  from  the  outside  and  replace  it  in  the 
water,  we  should  find,  months  after,  if  the  oyster  was 
examined,  that  it  had,  by  using  its  mantle,  secreted  a  large 
amount  of  pearly  nacre  over  the  wound,  not  only  filling  up 
the  hole,  but  heaping  the  pearly  secretion  over  it  until  a 
projection  a  quarter  of  an  inch  high  was  the  result,  resem- 
bling a  pearl  attached  to  the  shell.  This  is  the  way  im- 
perfect pearls  are  formed ;  they  are  the  attempts  on  the 
part  of  the  oyster  to  prevent  injury  to  itself.  Occasionally 
some  foreign  body,  like  a  grain  of  sand,  will  enter  the 
shell.  Its  sharp  edges  will  cut  the  soft  flesh  of  the  deli- 
cate creature,  which  immediately  covers  it  with  pearly 
nacre.  The  larger  it  grows  the  more  the  oyster  notices 
it  among  its  folds,  and  the  more  it  instinctively  covers  it 
with  pearl.  In  this  way  the  pearls  grow. 

The  seed  pearls  are  those  in  which  some  impurity  has 


96  THE  TWO-VALVED   SHELLS 

been  covered  but  a  few  times,  while  the  very  large  pearls 
are  those  which  have  been  bathed  in  nacre  time  and  again. 
If  a  large  pearl  is  cut  in  halves,  the  various  layers  can  be 
counted,  the  sections  recalling  the  interior  of  an  onion. 
The  skillful  native  fakirs  of  the  East  take  advantage  of 
this  industry  of  the  pearl  oyster  to  introduce  metal  beads 
and  figures  of  the  Buddha  into  shells,  which  are  then 
marked.  The  objects  finally  become  covered,  when  they 
are  removed  from  the  shells  and  sold  to  the  unsuspecting 
natives  as  "  miracles." 

One  of  the  interesting  shells  of  the  seashore  is  the 
Pinna.  I  have  found  the  shores  of  the  outside  islands  of 
Texas  scattered  with  them.  They  are  also  called  fan 
shells,  and  are  attached  to  the  bottom  by  a  peculiar  cable, 
or  byssus,  formed  of  a  silklike  substance  which  has  been 
woven.  Gloves  and  hose  of  pinna  silk  may  be  seen  in 
the  British  Museum. 

The  pectens  are  common  forms  famous  for  the  beauti- 
ful gemlike  eyes  seen  along  the  edge  of  their  mantles.  I 

once  kept  a  number  of  these 
shells  in  an  aquarium,  and 
they  were  a  source  of  much 
amusement,  from  their 
habit  of  dancing  (Fig.  86). 
Generally  they  lay  in  the 
sand  in  the  bottom  of  the 

FIG.  86.  —  Pectens  swimming. 

tank  with  their  valves  open 

an  inch  or  more,  their  bright  eyes  gleaming.  Without 
any  warning,  one  would  open  and  close  its  valves  with 
great  rapidity,  w'rich  would  cause  the  shell  to  take  con- 
vulsive and  bounding  hops.  Then  another  shell  would 


THE   TWO-VALVED   SHELLS 


97 


follow,  and  soon  all  the  pectens  were  leaping  up  and  down 
in  a  most  extraordinary  dance.  The  pecten  changes  its 
position  or  travels,  not  by  pushing  itself  along,  but  by  a 
sudden  and  spasmodic  hop,  clearing  a  foot  or  more. 

The  locomotion  of  shells  itself  is  a  fascinating  subject. 
An  interesting  instance  is  observed  in  the  common  mussel. 
This  shell  has  a  remarkable  foot,  a  pointed,  fleshy  organ 
which  can  be  protruded.  With  this  organ  the  mussel  bores 
holes  in  the  sand,  jerks  itself 
along,  or  clears  the  surface 
with  a  bound.  But  its  most 
remarkable  service  is  in  aiding 
the  mussel  to  climb.  In  the 
foot,  near  its  base,  is  a  gland 
which  secretes  a  peculiar  sub- 
stance, which  when  exposed  to 
the  water  hardens  and  resem- 
bles silk.  The  resemblance  is 
so  perfect  that  the  "silk"  has- 
been  woven  into  various  arti- 
cles, and  an  attempt  was  made 
in  France  to  raise  mussels  for 
this  purpose.  When  the  ani- 
mal desires  to  climb,  it  reaches  out  its  foot  as  high  as  it  can 
(Fig.  87),  and  presses  it  upon  the  pile  or  rock,  whereupon 
a  delicate  cord,  one  of  the  cables  of  its  byssus,  is  seen. 
Again  the  foot  is  extended,  again  a  cable  is  attached,  the 
entire  operation  calling  to  mind  the  action  of  a  spider. 
Each  step  raises  the  mussel  a  little  higher,  and  as  it  moves 
on,  the  cables  that  would  hold  it  back  are  broken  off,  and 
the  mussel  at  length  reaches  the  position  it  desires. 

HOL.   LO.  AN.  —  7 


FlG.  87.  —  Mussel  climbing:  Bt 
cables;  Ft  foot 


98 


THE   TWO-VALVED   SHELLS 


The  fresh-water  mussels  found  in  the  Ohio  and  other 
rivers  and  streams  are  pearl  producers.  Very  valuable 
gems  have  been  taken  from  them  in  various  states,  and  the 
fresh-water  pearl  fishery  of  the  United  States  is  of  con- 
siderable importance.  A  fresh-water  pearl  found  in  New 
Jersey  was  valued  at  $2000,  and  one  taken  from  a  stream 
in  Scotland  brought  $50,000. 

The  vast  number  of  shells  and  the  varieties  of  each  kind 
can  hardly  be  realized  by  those  who  have  not  examined  a 
well-equipped  collection.  Over  four  thousand  species  of 
the  mussel  are  known,  and  hundreds  of  species  of  almost 
every  shell  exist  in  various  streams  and  seas.  The  shells 
range  from  minute  specimens  hardly  visible  to  giants 
weighing  several  hundred  pounds,  one  of  the  latter  being 
the  huge  clam,  Tridacna  (Fig.  88),  found  in  the  equato- 
rial Pacific.  There 
are  several  species, 
and  in  the  largest 
each  valve  weighs 
about  two  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds. 
The  animal  itself 
weighs  thirty 
pounds,  and  affords 
a  meal  to  forty  or 
fifty  men.  The 
shell,  by  means  of 
its  foot,  buries  itself  in  the  soft  rock  of  the  regions  in 
which  it  lives.  With  its  valves  partly  open  it  resembles 
a  huge  sea  anemone  ;  but  it  closes  them  at  the  slightest 
alarm.  Large  fishes,  and  even  natives,  it  is  said,  have  been 


SCALE   IN    FEET. 


FIG.  88.  — Giant  clam. 


THE  TWO-VALVED   SHELLS 


99 


trapped  by  this  giant,  whose  jawlike  valves,  with  three  huge 
teeth,  grip  the  fin  of  a  fish  or  the  foot  of  an  unfortunate 
wader  with  a  vicelike  grasp.  The  byssus  or 
anchor  of  this  huge  shell  is  so  thick  and  tena- 
cious that  it  is  severed  only  with  great  difficulty 
and  labor.  The  shells  are  valuable  as  orna- 
ments, large  numbers  being  sent  to  various 
countries  for  this  purpose.  The  giant  never 
moves,  and  in  this  respect  is  a  sharp  contrast 
to  the  little  donax,  so  common  on  our  various 
shores  and  in  France,  which  leaps  along  the 
muddy  flats  by  convulsive  movements  of  its 
fleshy  foot. 

The  common  razor  clam,  of  which  sixty  or 
more  species  are  known,  by  means  of  its  foot 
(Fig.  89)  digs  a  deep  burrow  which  is  filled 
with  water  even  at  low  tide.  The  shell  is  often 
found  at  the  entrance,  but  at  the  slightest 
alarm  it  dashes  deep  down  into  its  den,  to  be 
caught  only  by  persistent  digging. 

The  odd  shapes  assumed  by  many  bivalves  is  well  illus- 
trated in  the  hammer  oyster  (Fig.  90)  and  the  pholas. 
The  latter  illustrates  the  power  of  the  most  insignificant 
animals,  as  by  means  of  its  foot  this  little  shell  burrows 
into  the  hardest  granite.  It  is  invariably  found  there  and 
imprisoned ;  for  when  it  reaches  the  interior  of  a  stone,  it 
grows  and  enlarges,  leaving  but  a  small  opening  for  the 
siphons.  It  is  supposed  by  some  that  the  pholas  possesses 
some  secretions  by  which  it  dissolves  the  stone,  and  by 
others  that  it  wears  away  the  rock  by  using  its  shell  as  a 
file.  In  any  event  the  shell  is  known  to  contain  aragonite, 


FIG.  89.— Ra- 
zor clam. 


100 


THE    TWO-VALVED   SHELLS 


a  very  hard  substance.     In  the  pillar  of  the  temple  of  Sera- 
pis,  Italy,  the  holes  made  by  this  shell  are  seen. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  pholas  is  its 
power  as  a  light  giver.     It  emits  a  delicate  blue  light,  dead 


FIG.  90.  —  Hammer  oyster. 

or  alive.  One  placed  in  a  glass  of  milk  has 
been  used  as  a  lamp,  illuminating  the  faces 
near  it.  Another  placed  in  honey  retained 
its  phosphorescence  for  over  a  year.  The 
little  pholas  is  found  all  over  the  world,  more 
than  eighty  different  species  being  known. 

The  teredo  or  ship  worm  (Fig.  91)  is  called 
a  worm  because  it  secretes  a  limy  shell,  but 
it  is  really  a  bivalve  shell  open  at  both  ends,  a  shell  which 
with  one  exception  causes  more  destruction  than  all  other 
marine    animals    combined.      Instinctively   it  bores    into 
wood,  forming  an  irregular  tunnel  and  lining  it  with  a 


FIG.  91.  — 
Teredo,  a  bor- 
ing shell. 


THE   TWO-VALVED   SHELLS  IOI 

delicate  coating  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Some  years  ago 
I  visited  on  the  outer  Florida  Reef,  an  old  wreck  which 
was  newly  buried  in  the  sand  and  partly  exposed  at  low 
tide.  The  timbers  of  the  vessel  looked  strong  and  able 
to  stand  many  a  storm,  yet  with  a  blow  of  my  hand  I 
broke  through  the  planking.  The  interior  was  completely 
honeycombed  by  the  teredo,  so  that  it  was  a  maze  of  tubes. 
At  this  place  the  life  of  a  pile  of  yellow  pine  was  a  year 
and  a  half;  in  other  words,  after  being  exposed  to  the 
teredo  for  this  length  of  time,  it  was  useless.  On  the 


FlG.  92.  —  Mactra :  a,  foot ;  b,  c,  siphons. 

Pacific,  at  Avalon  Bay,  the  piles  last  about  two  years,  being 
rapidly  destroyed,  even  though  soaked  in  various  poisonous 
fluids  and  coated  with  tar.  Many  thousands  of  dollars 
have  been  expended  in  experiments  with  devices  to  outwit 
the  teredo,  but  without  avail,  and  they  are  the  greatest 
menace  to  navigation  and  piers  to-day,  making  their  way 
into  hulls,  despite  the  copper  sheathing.  In  the  mud 
banks  of  the  waters  of  Sumatra,  teredos  are  found  which 
attain  a  length  of  six  feet,  with  tubes  four  inches  in 
diameter. 


102 


THE   TWO-VALVED   SHELLS 


The  shells  are  famous  for  their  beauty,  the  polished 
valves  and  their  marvelous  tints 
presenting  attractive  combinations. 
The  common  mactra  (Fig.  92),  the 
cockle  (Fig.  93)  with  its  deep 
radiations,  the  gorgeous  pectens  of 
the  South,  the  splendid  pearl-bear- 
ing shells,  all  tell  a  wonderful  story 
of  the  resources  of  nature,  and 
emphasize  the  fact  that  the  smallest 
and  most  inconspicuous  animals  vie 
with  the  larger  forms  in  beauty  of  shape  and  color. 


FlG.  93.  — Cockle. 


XII.     THE   UNIVALVES 

THE  shells  which  have  been  noticed  in  the  preceding 
chapter  belonged  literally  to  the  stay-at-homes  of  the 
family.  They  rarely  wander  far,  and  many,  as  we  have 
seen,  never  leave  the  place  which  the  young  shell  first 


FIG.  94.  — Group  of  shells :    i,  Cymbium  ;  2,  Cerithium  ;  3,  Voluta;  4,  Cardium ; 
5,  Phorus;  6,  Murex;  7,  Vermetus ;  8,  Trochus;  9,  Pholas;  10,  Turritella. 

selected  as  its  home.  What  are  known  as  the  univalves, 
the  mollusks  with  one  shell,  or  perhaps  no  shell  at  all,  are 
the  reverse  of  this,  being  in  many  instances  travelers, 
wandering  here  and  there.  This  suggests  that  they  have 

103 


104 


THE   UNIVALVES 


more  highly  organized  locomotive  organs.     Those  shown 
on  the  upper  part  of  Figure  94  are  univalves,  and  if  we 

make  a  section  of  a  univalve 
(Fig.  95),  we  see  that  the  shell  is 
much  more  complicated  than  in 
the  previous  forms.  The  univalve 
has  a  shell-secreting  mantle  and 
organs  resembling  those  of  the 
bivalves,  only  differently  placed. 
This  marvelous  mantle  performs 
some  singular  feats,  judging  from 
the  spines  found  on  many  shells. 
To  make  these,  the  mantle  must 
have  been  thrown  outward  and 
upward,  forming  a  tube  in  which 
the  spine  was  secreted. 

In  the  univalves  a  distinct  head 
is  seen  (Fig.  98)  with  tentacles 
and  prominent  eyes.  The  foot  is 
now  elaborated  into  a  huge  sucking,  clinging,  disklike 
organ.  In  the  whelk  it  is  as  long  as  the  shell,  the  latter 
being  perched  high  above  it,  presenting  a  remarkable 
spectacle  as  it  moves  along  the  sandy  floor  of  the  ocean. 
On  the  head  are  two  tentacles,  feelers  or  sense  organs, 
and  sometimes  the  eyes  are  mounted  on  tall  stalks,  that 
the  shell  may  have  a  wide  range  of  vision.  A  siphon, 
such  as  we  have  seen  in  the  clam,  is  present  and  extended 
upward  and  forward.  It  protrudes  from  a  canal  formed 
in  the  shell  for  the  purpose,  and  is  often  very  long.  If 
the  whelk  (Fig.  99)  is  disturbed,  it  suddenly  withdraws 
its  body,  including  the  enormous  colored  foot ;  and  if  the 


FlG.  95.  —  Section  of  a  univalve. 


THE  UNIVALVES 


105 


B 


FlG.  96. —  Tongue  and  teeth  of  a  univalve:  A, 
portion  of  tongue  of  Velutina ;  Bt  portion  of  tongue 
of  whelk ;  C,  head  arid  tongue  of  limpet ;  D,  portion 
of  same  enlarged. 


shell  is  picked  up,  the  entrance  is  found  securely  closed 
by  a  horny  door  called  the  operculum,  which  is  attached 
to  the  foot  (Fig.  99).  This  door  takes  many  shapes.  In 
the  beautiful  conch  it  is  saber-shaped,  and  is  used  to  dig 
into  the  sand,  or,  as  a  lever,  to  force  the  conch  along  by 
a  series  of  jerks.  In  other  shells  it  is  apparently  made 
of  porcelain,  hard  and  highly  polished.  It  is  well  known 
as  the  "eye  stone" 
of  popular  fancy. 

Many  of  the  uni- 
valves are  flesh 
eaters,  preying  upon 
others  of  their  kind. 
They  have  a  remark- 
able tongue  (Fig.  96) 
for  the  purpose,  in 
fact,  the  teeth  are  upon  the  tongue  in  sawlike  rows.  The 
tongue,  which  is  called  the  lingual  ribbon,  is  ribbon  shaped, 
long  and  slender,  and  is  really  a  soft,  pliable  saw  with 

which  the  animal  bores  into 
the  hardest  shells  of  the  help- 
less clams.  In  strolling  along- 
shore a  large  majority  of  the 
"  dead "  clam  shells  found 
bleaching  in  the  sun,  where 
they  have  been  washed  by  the 
sea,  will  be  seen  to  contain  a 
circular  hole  of  perfect  sym- 
metry (Fig.  97).  This  has  been  made  by  the  boring,  saw- 
like  tongue  of  a  univalve,  which,  after  gaining  an  entrance 
into  the  tightly  locked  shell,  deliberately  sucked  it  out. 


FIG.  97.  —  Clam  shell  bored  by  a 
univalve. 


106  THE   UNIVALVES 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  location  of  this  hole,  which  is 
invariably  over  the  softest  and  plumpest  part  of  the  victim, 
near  the  lungs,  showing  that  the  cannibalistic  univalve  is 
very  clever  in  its  mode  of  attack. 

While  the  oyster  deposits  vast  quantities  of  eggs,  which 
float  out  into  the  water  to  be  destroyed  by  other  animals, 
many  of  the  univalves  protect  their  eggs  in  remarkable 
cases.  I  have  often  found  on  the  Florida  Reef  strings 
(Fig.  98)  of  singular  objects  which  resembled  sections  of 
a  yellowish  cylinder  connected  by  a  little  cord.  Each 
section  is  an  egg  case,  or  capsule,  and  contains  many 


FIG.  98  —  Egg  case  of  a  conch. 

shells,  the  entire  chain  being  two  or  three  feet  in  length. 
This  becomes  tangled  in  the  coral  or  seaweed,  and  holds 
the  young  shells,  all  of  which  escape  through  a  little  door 
in  each  section. 

Other  shells,  as  the  whelk  (Fig.  99),  deposit  their  egg 
cases  in  heaps  or  mounds.  They  are  soft  and  spongelike, 
and  are  often  mistaken  for  sponges  when  divested  of  their 
shells  and  cast  ashore.  Perhaps  the  best-known  egg  case 
is  that  of  the  common  Natica,  which  forms  a  singular 
object  called  the  "sand  collar"  (Fig.  100).  The  animal 
molds  this  collar  out  of  fine  sand  with  its  foot,  and 


THE    UNIVALVES  IO/ 

deposits  its  eggs  in  the  interior,  all  being   cemented  or 


FIG.  99.  — The  whelk:  A,  living  shell;  B,  empty  shell;   Ct  egg  case. 

glued  together  in  a  solid  mass.  We  shall  find  that  certain 
birds  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  others,  so  saving 
the  wearying  process  of  hatching. 
A  certain  shell,  called  Nassa,  has 
a  similar  habit.  At  times  it  de- 
posits its  eggs  on  the  collar  nest 
of  the  Natica. 

Among  the  myriads  of   shells 
which  we  may  select  to  illustrate 
the     various     interesting     types, 
shapes,    and   kinds,  are  the   Chitons   (Fig.    101).      Their 
shells  are  made  up  of  many  plates  resembling  the  plates 


FIG.  zoo.  — Egg  case  of  the 

Natica. 


108  THE   UNIVALVES 

of  a  hawkbill  turtle.     Many  live  in  holes  in  the  rocks, 


FIG.  101.  —  The  Chiton  and  its  free-swimming  young.  I.  Adult,  showing  plates. 
II.  Chiton  dissected:  o,  mouth;  g,  nervous  ring;  ao,  great  artery  from  the  heart, 
aorta;  c,  ventricle;  c' ',  an  auricle;  br,  left  branchiae;  od,  oviducts.  Ill,  IV,  V. 
Development  of  free-swimming  young. 

and  all  have  a  very  large,  sucking,   disklike  foot  which 

clings  to  the  rocks  with  great  tenacity.  Resembling  them 
somewhat  are  the  limpets.  These  are 
interesting  and  beautiful  shells,  especially 
when  polished,  forming  attractive  domes 
marvelously  tinted  and  colored.  Some 
are  called  keyhole  limpets  (Fig.  102),  from 
the  fact  that  they  have  a  keyhole-like 

opening  in  the  top.     They  range  in  size  from  very  minute 

forms  to  giants  a  foot  in  length. 


FIG.  102.  —  Keyhole 
limpet. 


THE   UNIVALVES  IOQ 

Among  the  most  beautiful  of  all  shells,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  most  common  in  tropic  and  semitropic  seas,  are 
the  abalones.  They  are  also  called  ear  shells.  They 
have  an  enormous  foot  that  covers  the  entire  lower  sur- 
face, being  a  remarkably  powerful  organ.  Instances  have 
been  known  where  Chinese  abalone  hunters  have  tried  to 
pry  off  the  shell  from  a  rock  with  their  hands,  and  have 
had  their  fingers  caught  and  held  as  though  by  a  vice. 

The  Haliotis  is  very  common  on  the  shores  of  the 
southern  Calif ornian  islands.  In  some  localities  every 
rock  is  covered  with  them,  and  in  places  where  the  black 
abalone  is  common,  I  have  found  them  piled  one  upon  the 
other.  There  are  two  hundred  species  living.  Every  tint, 
color,  or  tone  known  in  the  scale  of  color,  or  its  combina- 
tions, is  flashed  from  these  marvelous  shells,  which,  if  rare, 
would  be  counted  among  the  most  beautiful  of  all  natural 
productions.  On  the  Californian  coast  they  are  collected 
in  large  numbers,  and  when  polished  are  converted  into 
buttons  and  a  thousand  and  one  other  objects.  The  meat, 
which  is  of  excellent  quality,  is  sold  in  large  quantities  to 
the  Chinese.  Thousands  of  the  shells  are  bought  by 
tourists,  the  outside  being  richly  polished.  From  the 
ancient  graves  or  Indian  mounds  of  the  Californian  islands 
I  have  taken  quantities,  especially  the  large  kind  known  as 
the  red  abalone,  showing  that  they  were  used  by  the 
ancient  inhabitants.  In  all  of  these  islands  heaps  and 
piles  of  abalones  are  found  far  from  the  water.  By  stop- 
ping up  the  holes  in  the  shell  with  asphaltum,  which 
drifts  ashore  here,  the  natives  had  an  excellent  dish,  or 
bailer.  They  cut  the  shell  into  earrings  and  ornaments 
of  many  kinds,  and  most  of  their  fishhooks  were  evolved 


no 


THE   UNIVALVES 


from   this   beautiful   shell,   which    also   supplied  a  large 
proportion  of  their  food. 

On  the  Florida  Reef  the  great  conch s  (Fig.  103)  are 
very  common.  They  live  on  the  sandy  floor  of  the  lagoons, 
hitching  themselves  slowly  along  by  their  long-pointed, 
saberlike  operculums.  This  is  the  conch  of  commerce, 


FlG.  103.  —  Great  conch  (Strombus). 


FIG.  104.  —  Queen  conch  ( Cassis) . 


in  which  appears  the  most  delicate  of  all  pink  colors,  and 
which  is  the  source  of  the  rare  pink  pearls.  In  the  same 
locality,  but  in  deeper  water,  is  found  the  Queen  conch 
(Fig.  104),  which  is  cut  into  medallions  and 
cameos.  The  beautiful  Cypraea  (Fig.  105),  of 
which  many  varieties  are  known,  are  called 
micramocks  in  Florida,  and  cowries  elsewhere. 
Their  luster  and  natural  polish  often  excite 
wonder,  for  they  commonly  live  concealed  in 
the  rough  portions  of  dead  coral  branches, 
where  they  would  easily  become  scratched. 
The  cowry,  however,  is  protected  by  a  remarkable  mantle 


FIG.  105.— 
Cypraea. 


THE   UNIVALVES 


II I 


which  covers  the  entire  shell,  thus  keeping  its  pianolike 
surface  as  smooth  as  a  mirror.  Many  cowries  are  beauti- 
fully striped;  some  are  spotted  with  dark  spots  on  a 
white  background ;  some  are  yellow ;  others  are  red  or 
old  gold,  every  tint  and  color  seemingly  being  employed  by 
nature  in  painting  these  gems  of  the  sea.  Few  other  shells 
have  been  so  universally  esteemed  by  all  nations.  Among 
certain  African  tribes  they  are  used  as  money,  and  not 
many  years  ago  collections  of  cowries  were  made  with 
all  the  ardor  that  actuated  the  tulip  collectors,  thousands 
of  dollars  being  paid  for  single  shells,  as  the  orange  cowry. 

The  cone  shells  (Fig.  106)  represent  a  beau- 
tiful group,  spotted  like 
leopards,  striped  like  the 
tiger,  black,  red,  yellow. 


FIG.  106.  — Cone 
shell  (Conus). 


FIG.  107.— Augur 
shell  (Terebra). 


FlG.  108.  —  Spindle 
shell  (Fusus). 


Some  shells  are  very  pointed,  like  the  augur  shell  (Fig. 
107).  Some  have  an  extraordinarily  long  projection  for 
the  siphon,  as  the  spindle  shell  (Fig.  108).  In  some  the 
opening  is  very  small,  as  the  cone  shells,  while  in  others 
it  is  immense,  and  protected  by  a  large,  doorlike  oper- 


112 


THE   UNIVALVES 


FlG.  109.  —  A  snail  crawling. 


culum.  The  Bulimas  is  a  famous  nest  builder.  Bulla  is 
interesting  from  the  lightness  and  delicacy  of  the  shell 
and  its  rich  neutral  browns. 

Among  the  very  familiar  shells  are  the  land  snails 
(Fig.  109),  common  in  every  garden  and  raised  and  sold  in 

France  and  Italy 
as  table  deli- 
cacies. Closely 
allied  to  them 
are  the  slugs, 
which  bear  upon 
their  backs,  be- 
neath the  skin, 
a  delicate,  scale- 
like  shell.  On 
the  island  of  San  Clemente,  fifty  miles  off  the  coast  of 
California,  I  found  an  extensive  sandy  plain  which  was 
so  thickly  strewn  with  the  white,  bleached  snail  shells 
that  I  could  hardly  step  without  crushing  several.  The 
verdure  had  died,  and  the  snails  were  doubtless  killed  by 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

These  interesting  animals  are  called  pulmonates  because 
they  breathe  air  directly. 

The  slugs  (Fig.  no)  have  many  peculiar  characteristics. 
If  the  long  tentacles  on  the  short  eye  stalk  are  destroyed, 
the  snail  will  reproduce  them.  In  winter  the  snails  descend 
into  the  ground,  or  hide  themselves  away,  literally  sealing 
themselves  in  their  shells  by  closing  the  door  firmly,  and 
there  hibernate  until  spring,  neither  eating  nor  drinking, 
and  hardly  breathing  during  this  time ;  if  placed  in  a  cold 
storage  box,  they  will  remain  several  years  in  this  state. 


THE  UNIVALVES  113 

Some  of  the  snails  of  Africa  are  six  inches  across,  and 
the  eggs  are  an  inch  in  length.  Semper  found  a  little 
snail  in  the  Philippines,  which  when  caught  by  the  foot  or 
"tail"  throws  it  off  as  a  lizard  jerks  off  its  tail.  This  is 
not  a  great  hardship,  as  the  tail  is  soon  renewed.  In  a 
collection  of  shells  which  came  from  France  some  years 


FIG.  no.  —  Slugs  and  snails. 

ago  I  found  several  snails  of  different  colors  which  were 
joined  one  to  the  other.  The  collector  had  cut  the  top 
from  an  empty  brown  snail  and  placed  a  living  snail  with 
a,  yellow  shell  upon  it,  tying  the  two  together.  The  snail, 
supposing  that  its  shell  had  been  broken,  immediately 
began  to  repair  the  wound,  and  closed  up  the  breach  with 
its  shell-secreting  mantle,  so  that  the  two  shells  became 
one. 

HOL.  LO.  AN.  —  8 


114  THE  UNIVALVES 

In  floating  on  the  borders  of  the  Sargasso  Sea,  the 
vast  sea  of  weeds  in  the  South  Atlantic,  I  found  numbers 
of  a  beautiful  sea  slug  (Fig.  in)  which  so  resembled  the 
weeds  in  shape  and  color,  a  rich  olive  green,  that  it  was 
almost  impossible  to  distinguish  it,  except  when  very  close 

to  the  surface.  They 
have  attractive  names, 
as  Doris,  Tritonia,  ^Eolis, 
and  Aplysia,  and  are 
among  the  wonders  of  the 

FIG.  in.  —  A  sea  slug  (Dendronotus) .  .   •,     •,.         r    i     i          1-1 

great  belts  of  kelp  which 

surround  the  continent.  I  once  found  a  slug  at  Santa 
Catalina  which  was  a  vivid,  almost  iridescent  purple ; 
another  was  yellow ;  but  the  most  interesting  was  Aplysia, 
a  giant  two  feet  long,  which  I  kept  in  an  aquarium. 
It  weighed  nearly  eight  pounds,  could  lengthen  itself 
out  to  a  distance  of  nearly  three  feet,  or  contract  into  a 
dark,  olive-hued  ball,  scarcely  six  inches  across.  It  took 
sea  lettuce  from  my  hand,  eating  with  avidity,  and  when 
disturbed  emitted  a  purple  ink  which  filled  the  water  and 
hid  the  monster  "sea  hare"  from  view.  It  laid  its  eggs 
on  the  sides  of  the  tank  in  long  chains,  but  if  not  well 
fed,  exhibited  a  decided  cannibalistic  tendency,  devouring 
its  own  progeny.  This  animal  had  an  enormous  foot  by 
which  it  crept  rapidly  along,  and  it  invariably  protected 
itself  by  imitating  the  color  of  the  bottom  upon  which  it 
rested. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  slugs  is  the  Onchidium 
(Fig.  112).  According  to  the  naturalist  Semper,  it  has 
upon  its  back  numerous  eyes,  which  enable  it  to  see 
from  above.  It  is  a  mud-loving  form,  common  in  our 


THE   UNIVALVES 


new  provinces,  the  Philippines, 
where  the  heat  is  intense  and 
the  water  warm.  One  of  the 
land  slugs,  Limax  noctiluca, 
emits  light;  and  the  eggs  of 
another,  Arion,  have  been 
noticed  to  be  luminous  for 
nearly  two  weeks  after  being 
deposited. 

Nearly  all  these  shells  are 
slow-moving  animals,  but  there 
are  others,  the  pteropods 
(Fig.  113),  which  are  swim- 
mers. The  veritable  fairy  craft  of  the  sea,  they  are 


FIG.  112. —  Onchidium,  a  sea  slug 
with  eyes  on  its  back. 


FIG.  113.  —  A,  B,  C,  pteropods ;  D,  young  of  Cleodora,  all  highly  magnified. 


u6 


THE   UNIVALVES 


housed  in  shells  of  dainty  structure  and  moving  by  sin- 
gular winglike  fins,  which  give  them  the  name  of  ocean 
butterflies.  They  have  the  property  of  phosphorescence 
to  a  remarkable  degree.  Cleodora  (Fig.  1 1 3,  D)  emits  a  soft 
light  which  gleams  through  the  delicate  shell  like  a  light 
in  a  lantern.  In  swimming  it  moves  its  fins  up  and  down 
very  much  like  a  butterfly,  so  that  they  touch  at  the  top. 
As  delicate  and  dainty  as  this  little  creature  is,  it  has  a 
marvelous  arrangement  for  seizing  prey,  each  tentacle 
having  about  three  thousand  transparent  cylinders,  each 
of  which  contains  twenty  stalked  suckers.  As  there  are 
six  tentacles  on  each  sucker,  Cleodora  can  grasp  its  prey  with 
three  hundred  thousand  hands.  Equally  dainty  in  its  way 
is  the  sea  snail,  lanthina,  a  violet  shell  of  great  delicacy, 
whose  foot  develops  a  raft  which  resembles  a  mass  of 
soap  bubbles,  so  the  violet  snail  floats  upon  the  surface 

of  tropical  and  semi- 
tropical  seas.  I 
have  seen  the  shores 
of  the  keys  of  the 
Florida  Reef  lined 
with  an  undulating 
ribbon  of  these 
shells  after  a  storm. 
When  touched  they 
emit  a  rich  violet  ink 
which  lasts  a  long 
time  as  a  stain. 
A  small  species  of  lanthina  is  found  in  the  winter  on  the 
southern  Californian  shores,  and  beneath  the  attractive 
float  will  be  found  the  eggs. 


FIG.  114.  —  1,  Dentalium  entails,  natural  size ;  2, 
shell  magnified,  and  broken  to  show  animal  within; 
3,  animal  projecting  from  the  shell;  4,  animal  from 
below,  magnified;  6,  same  from  above;  5,  same, 
showing  internal  structure. 


XIII.     THE   CUTTLEFISHES 


IN  the  great  libraries  of  the  country  will  be  found  books 
dating  back  to  the  last  two  centuries,  many  of  which  con- 
tain cuts  and  descriptions  of  frightful  animals  resembling 
huge  spiders,  called  krakens,  or  devilfishes.  They  are 
represented  climbing  over  ships,  and  hauling  them  down. 
One  is  described  as  so  huge  that  the  crew  of  a  vessel 
landed  upon  it,  not 
discovering  that  it  was 
not  an  island  until 
they  had  built  a  fire, 
when  the  supposed 
island,  really  a  kraken, 
sank  beneath  them. 
These  are  tales  of 
romancers,  but  it  is 
interesting  to  know  that  they  are  based  upon  a  slight 
foundation  of  fact.  Devilfishes  have  been  discovered  in 
various  seas,  which  weighed  several  hundred  pounds, 
and  whose  length  ranged  from  fifty  to  seventy  or  more 
feet.  Such  an  animal  is  the  giant  squid  (Fig.  115), 
which  is  a  very  timid  animal,  and  though  it  might  overturn 
a  small  boat,  it  is  not  likely  to  make  the  attempt. 

These  animals  are  called  cephalopods  because  their  feet 
are  attached  to  the  head ;  in  other  words,  they  are  head- 
footed.  The  typical  squid  or  cuttlefish  has  a  barrel-shaped 
body,  and  a  tail  resembling  an  arrowhead.  Its  head  is 

117 


FIG.  115.  — A  giant  squid,  fifty  feet  long. 


11$ 


THE   CUTTLEFISHES 


separated  from  the  body  by  a  seeming  neck,  and  is  pro- 
vided with  two  immense  eyes  (Fig.  1 16).  Projecting  for- 
ward are  two  long,  slender  arms,  and  eight  shorter  ones, 
which  in  the  giant  squid  are  from  six  to  ten  feet  in  length. 

These  are  armed  with  peculiar 
suckers  (Fig.  117),  each  of 
which  is  extremely  powerful. 
In  a  specimen  six  feet  long, 
which  I  kept  for  an  hour 


FIG.  116.  — Squid  (Sepia),  one  fifth 
natural  size. 


FlG.  117.  —  Suckers  of 
squid. 


alive  in  a  large  tank,  some  idea  of  the  strength  of  a 
squid  could  be  obtained.  It  fastened  its  eight  arms  to  the 
tank,  and  with  all  the  force  I  could  bring  to  bear  I  was 
unable  to  tear  them  off.  Besides  the  eight  short  arms 
there  are  two  long  ones. 

In  a  specimen  of  the  giant  squid  which  I  handled  and 
measured,  the  long  arms  were  about  thirty  feet  in  length, 


THE   CUTTLEFISHES 


119 


The  ends  were  enlarged  with  paddlelike  organs,  and  bore  a 
group  of  suckers.  The  object  of  the  long  arms  is  to  serve 
as  graspers.  They  are  kept  near  the  body,  coiled  up,  and 
can  be  shot  out  with  remarkable  velocity,  grasping  a  fish 


FIG.  118.  —  Beak  or  bill  of  a  squid. 

like  two  hands  with  gigantic  arms. 

They  haul   the   prey  to   the   short 

arms,  when   hundreds    of   sucking 

disks  hold  the  victim  that  is  now 

pressed   to  the  remarkable  mouth. 

This  lies  between  the  base  of  the 

arms,  and  in  color  and  appearance 

is  almost  exactly  like  the  beak  of 

a  parrot,  with  the  exception  that  the  under  bill  fits  over 

the  upper  (Fig.  1 18).    These  bills  almost  invariably  nip  the 

struggling  fish  over  the  vertebra  or  back  bone,  severing 

it  at  once,  and  ending  the  struggle.     The  tongue  of  the 

squid  is  a  ribbon  with  teeth  upon  it.     Such  an  armament 

alone  is  sufficient  to  attract  attention  to  the  animal,  but 


7/ 


FIG.  119.  —  Showing  parts 
of  a  squid:  T,  tentacles;  O, 
mouth  ;  F,  siphon  ;  In,  intes- 
tine ;  /,  ink  bag ;  B,  gills ;  //, 
heart;  K,  blood  vessel;  C, 
lobes  of  tail. 


120 


THE   CUTTLEFISHES 


it  has  still  another  feature  which  adds  to  its  interest  as 
a  weird  and  disagreeable  creature.  The  squid  has  a 
siphon  which  terminates  in  a  tube,  opening  beneath  the 
head.  Into  this  an  ink  bag  opens  (Fig.  119).  In  swim- 
ming, the  squid  rarely  if  ever  rests  upon  the  bottom,  but 
takes  in  water  around  the  edge  of  the  mantle  and  ejects 
it  with  more  or  less  force  from  the  siphon,  and  thus  the 
squid  is  driven  along,  tail  foremost.  When  alarmed  its 
movements  are  very  rapid.  If  in  danger,  the  squid  pours 
an  inky  secretion,  which  is  the  sepia  of  commerce,  into  the 
siphon,  and  the  secretion  is  swept  out  into 
the  water  in  a  cloud  which  spreads  rapidly, 
to  the  confusion  of  any  following  enemy. 

The  squid  has  a  shell,  but  it  is  very  small, 
and  internal.  It  is  called  the  pen,  and  that 
of  some  species  is  the  cuttlefish  bone  of 
commerce  (Fig.  120).  In  specimens  six  or 
seven  feet  long,  taken  at  Santa  Catalina, 
California,  the  pen 
was  fifteen  inches 
long  and  glasslike 
—  a  perfect  pen 
in  shape.  Such  is 
this  peculiar  creature,  and  if  we 
add  that  it  can  change  its  color 
from  very  dark  brown  to  almost 
white,  adapting  it  to  the  color  of 
the  bottom  over  which  it  rests, 
we  can  form  some  idea  of  one 
of  the  strangest  of  all  animals. 
They  deposit  eggs  in  clusters.  FIG.  i«i.  — Eggs  of  the  squid, 


FIG.  120.— 

Cuttlefish  bone. 


THE   CUTTLEFISHES  121 

The  squids  range  in  size  from  gigantic  specimens  seventy 
or  more  feet  in  length  to  the  minute  Cranchia,  which  is 
luminous  at  times.  Some  have  no  tails,  some  only  the  sug- 
gestion of  a  tail,  some  have  very  pointed  ones,  some  very 
broad  ones.  In  specimens  of  the  little  Cranchia  which  I 
observed  the  head  was  very  small  and  the  body  long  in  pro- 
portion. One  form  appears  to  have  side  winglike  fins.  The 
large  squids  live  in  the  deep  sea,  and  most  of  the  specimens 
known  have  been  taken  from  the  deep  fjords  of  New- 
foundland, which  appears  to  be  a  favorite  locality  for 
them.  They  doubtless  live  everywhere  in  the  deep  seas, 
as  they  are  almost  invariably  found  in  the  stomach  of 
the  sperm  whale,  evidently  constituting  a  favorite  food  of 
this  giant-toothed  whale. 

The  squids  live  mainly  upon  fishes,  and  are  very  skillful 
in  taking  them,  poising  like  a  cat,  near  the  bottom,  creep- 
ing upon  a  school  of  sardines,  — all  the  time  simulating  the 
color  of  the  bottom,  and  almost  invisible  but  for  their  large, 
dark  eyes  standing  out,  —  then  suddenly  darting  tail  first 
into  the  school,  flinging  the  long  arms  at  the  flying  fishes, 
and  almost  always  catching  one,  which  is  dragged  up  to 
the  parrotlike  bill  and  dismembered.  In  the  six  and  seven 
foot  squids  taken  at  Santa  Catalina  the  stomachs  were 
filled  with  seaweed,  showing  that  at  least  some  of  these 
animals  are  vegetarians. 

On  all  tropical  shores  is  found  a  beautiful  coiled  shell, 
the  Spirula,  with  little  pearly  septa  dividing  it.  I  have 
seen  a  windrow  of  these  shells  a  mile  long,  but  never 
found  the  animal  and  shell  together,  so  easily  are  they 
disconnected.  It  is  the  smallest  and  the  most  beautiful  of 
all  the  cephalopods, 


122 


THE   CUTTLEFISHES 


The  familiar  devilfish  or  octopus  (Fig.  122)  is  another 
form,    a   bottom    lover,    found   among    the    rocks,   rarely 

attempting  to 
swim.  It  has  a 
round,  baglike 
body,  often  cov- 
ered with  soft, 
fleshy  spines ;  two 
fiery  green  eyes, 
which  always 
seem  to  emit  a 
baneful  light; 
eight  sucker-lined 
arms,  which  can 
be  thrown  in  any 
direction,  and  the 
beak  and  ink  bag 
noticed  in  the 
squid,  but  no  pen 
or  shell.  The 
octopus  lives  in 
dens  or  crevices  in  the  rocks,  and  ranges  in  size  from 
specimens  a  foot  or  two  across  to  giants  with  arms 
having  a  radial  spread  of  nearly  thirty  feet  (Fig.  123). 
These  large  individuals  are  found  along  the  Pacific  coast 
from  California  to  Alaska,  and  when  caught  generally 
make  a  desperate  struggle  for  liberty  and  display  a  vast 
amount  of  strength.  I  once  kept  a  number  in  a  tank, 
which  were  two  or  three  feet  across,  and  when  they 
had  grasped  firmly  it  was  almost  impossible  to  wrench 
them  from  the  glass.  They  differed  much  in  temper. 


FIG.  122.  —  Octopus  or  devilfish. 


THE   CUTTLEFISHES 


123 


Some  would  apparently  play  with  my  hand,  tapping  it  with 
their  tentacles,  or  gripping  it  gently.  Others  would  crouch 
like  miniature  tigers,  quivering  with  rage,  and  with  green 
eyes  shining,  would  spring  upon  it  and  attempt  to  smother 
it  with  their  arms  —  a  most  disagreeable  sensation, 
especially  when  it  was  almost  impossible  to  remove  the 
hand  from  the  uncanny  grasp  without  lacerating  their  flesh. 
One  large  octopus  in  this  family,  when  it  obtained  a  grip, 


„.>-  ••  '•:  s 

•*"-•*;  ~~ 

FIG.  123.  —  Giant  octopus,  radial  spread  twenty-two  feet. 

would  hold  my  hand  firmly ;  hence  I  concluded  that  a 
specimen  thirty  feet  across,  similar  to  those  represented  by 
casts  in  the  Yale  and  National  Museums,  might  easily 
overcome  a  man.  Yet  the  octopus  is  a  very  timid  animal 
in  the  open  water.  I  rarely  caught  them  either  in  Florida 
or  California,  unless  they  were  cornered,  and  they  never 
attempted  to  bite.  But  I  seized  one  in  the  coral,  and  it 
wound  about  my  arm  so  tightly  that  I  was  obliged  to 
wrench  away  twenty  or  more  pounds  of  branch  coral,  before 


124  THE  CUTTLEFISHES 

I  could  release  it  without  laceration.  When  attacked  the 
octopus  changes  color  with  great  rapidity  from  black  to 
gray,  and  when  enraged  it  often  has  the  appearance  of  a 
leopard.  Then  it  hurls  a  cloud  of  ink  into  the  water,  and 
endeavors  to  slink  away  under  this  cover,  gliding  through 
crevices  that  would  seem  entirely  too  small  to  admit  so 
large  an  animal. 

The  octopus  swims  when  forced  to  do  so,  using  a 
weblike  membrane  which  is  seen  to  connect  the  base  of 
the  eight  arms  or  by  forcing  water  from  its  siphon. 
These  arms,  when  extended,  give  the  octopus  a  faint 
resemblance  to  an  umbrella  without  a  handle,  and  with 
very  long  supports.  The  octopus  preys  upon  very 
small  animals,  particularly  crabs.  I  have  lain  among  the 
bowlders  on  the  shores  of  the  Californian  islands  and 
watched  the  octopus  hunting.  They  selected  the  flood 
tide  and  crept  near  the  shore,  moving  along  slowly,  on 
the  watch  for  a  species  of  Grapsus  very  common  here, 
a  land  crab  which  occasionally  enters  the  water.  The 
crabs  crept  down  to  the  water's  edge,  and  often  entered, 
and  in  this  moment  of  incaution  were  pounced  upon  by 
the  disagreeable  creature  so  well  named  the  devilfish. 
Sometimes  they  were  caught  at  the  very  edge ;  a  long,  livid 
tentacle  would  come  shooting  out  of  the  water  like  a  flame 
and  seize  the  victim.  Despite  its  struggles,  it  was  soon 
hauled  in,  the  octopus  immediately  covering  it  with  its 
umbrellalike  bag,  doubtless  bringing  its  nippers  into  play. 
I  have  seen  an  octopus  dash  out  of  water  two  or  three  feet 
and  scramble  up  the  dry  rocks  with  remarkable  speed 
after  an  escaping  crab.  At  these  times  the  octopus  can 
be  caught  by  seizing  it  quickly,  but  some  experience  is  re- 


THE   CUTTLEFISHES  125 

quired  before  one  can  grasp  a  large  octopus  and  retain  the 
hold,  so  disagreeable  is  the  sensation  of  the  snakelike  ten- 
tacles winding  about  hand  and  arm.  The  very  appearance 
of  the  octopus  is  like  a  horrible  dream,  and  so  intensely 
repulsive  is  the  animal  that  in  an  actual  test  not  one  person 
in  fifty  who  passed  a  tank  containing  an  octopus  with  arms 
a  foot  long  and  a  hideous  striped  body,  could  be  induced  to 
touch  the  animal,  though  assured  that  it  was  absolutely 
harmless  and  would  merely  squeeze  the  hand. 

While  the  devilfish  is  the  type  of  all  that  is  hideous  and 
repulsive  in  nature,  it  has  a  near  relative,  the  paper  nau- 
tilus, which  is  a  very  dainty  and  beautiful  creature.  It 
appears  to  be  an  octopus  which  lives  in  a  shell.  The 
argonaut,  as  it  is  called,  has  eight  short  arms,  the  upper 
pair  being  largely  developed  at  their  tips,  forming  fanlike 
or  saillike  organs.  It  was  formerly  believed  that  these 
were  really  sails,  held  aloft  to  catch  the  breeze  to  blow 
the  fairy  argonaut  along.  So  fixed  in  the  public  mind 
was  this  erroneous  belief  that  illustrations  in  various  works 
otherwise  correct,  display  the  argonaut  in  this  incorrect 
position.  The  animal  is  the  female,  which,  to  protect  and 
carry  its  eggs,  is  provided  with  a  dainty  shell  which  it 
secretes,  but  is  not  attached  to,  and  would  lose  were  it 
not  for  the  two  large-ended  tentacles  with  which  it  grasps 
the  beak  of  the  shell  (Fig.  124).  These  arms  also  bear 
the  shell-making  and  repairing  glands.  The  argonaut  can 
crawl  upon  the  rocks  at  the  bottom,  swim  through  the 
water,  forced  along  by  its  siphon  stream,  or  float  calmly 
at  the  surface.  About  nine  species  are  known ;  gener- 
ally in  some  tropical  waters.  Every  year  a  few  are  found 
stranded  upon  Santa  Catalina  Island,  California. 


126 


THE   CUTTLEFISHES 


In  many  of  the  fossil  deposits  are  found  gigantic  shells 

resembling  the  wheels  of  a  cart,  and  enormously  heavy. 

,  __  These  are  ammon- 

_&_  I  ites  (Figs.  125,  126), 

and  ancestors  of  the 
nautilus  (Fig.  127), 
another  member  of 
this  wonderful  family 
of  animals,  with  feet 
attached  to  their 
heads.  It  has  a  shell 
of  radiant  pearl,  di- 
vided, like  the  little 
Spirula,  by  pearly 
septa  or  partitions, 
into  rooms  or  cham- 
bers (C)  all  of  which 
surround  a  small 

tube    (s)    called   the   siphuncle.     This   contains   a   long, 

fleshy  pedicel,  hence  the  nautilus  is  attached  to  its  shell 

and  can  not  leave  it. 

The  shell  chambers 

are   filled  with   gas, 

and  the  animal  has 

the  power  to  change 

its    specific    gravity, 

to  float  or  rise.    The 

nautilus  forces  itself 

along   by  a   current 

from  its  siphon,  and 

in   a  general  way  re-  FIGS.  125,  126.  — Sections  of  an  ammonite. 


FlG.  124. — Argonaut  in  natural  position,  arms 
holding  the  shell. 


THE   CUTTLEFISHES 


127 


sembles  others  of  the  group.  It  has  no  ink  bag,  and  its 
eye  is  not  the  striking  object  seen  in  the  other  forms. 
It  is  merely  an  eleva- 
tion bearing  a  minute 
hole  which  leads  into 
the  globe  of  the  eye, 
which  during  the  life 
of  the  nautilus  is  filled 
with  water.  Accord- 
ing to  Doctor  Hensen, 
in  place  of  a  refracting 
lens  and  a  cornea, 
the  animal  has  an  ar- 
rangement for  form- 
ing an  image  on  the 
principle  of  a  pin-hole 
camera.  We  might 
imagine  the  nautilus 
easy  to  capture;  but  it  is  very  timid  and  rarely  caught. 
Instead  of  eight  or  ten  arms  the  nautilus  has  ninety-four. 
The  shell  is  a  beautiful  object  when  cleaned  and  polished, 
being  a  vase  of  pearl  of  a  chaste  and  elegant  design,  often 
copied,  and  in  great  demand  by  native  artisans  who  carve 
and  engrave  it,  and  mount  it  in  gold  and  silver.  The 
nautilus,  aside  from  its  beauty,  is  a  most  interesting  ani- 
mal, being  the  last  or  almost  the  last  of  its  race  of  fifteen 
hundred  species,  which  have  lived  in  former  periods  of 
the  earth.  Only  two  are  still  alive,  and  these  in  all  prob- 
ability are  doomed  to  extinction. 


FiG.  127. —  Pearly  nautilus:  T,  tentacles; 
M,  mantle;  Et  eye;  s,  siphuncle;  «S,  siphon; 
C,  chambers. 


XIV.     THE  CRUSTACEANS 

AMONG  all  the  animals  few  are  more  interesting  and 
whimsical  than  the  crabs  and  lobsters.  They  have  jointed 
legs,  feelers  and  claws  in  pairs,  living  in  a  shell  which  they 
cast  like  an  overcoat  when  they  outgrow  it,  and  have  bodies 
which  are  made  up  of  hard,  tough,  limy  rings  or  segments 
(Fig.  128).  The  crustaceans  are  found  in  all  waters,  fresh 
and  salt,  and  on  land.  They  abound  in  the  greatest  variety, 
and  range  in  size  from  specimens  almost  invisible  to  the 
naked  eye  to  forms  with  a  radial  spread  of  over  twenty 
feet. 

During  a  recent  visit  to  the  outlying  islands  of  the  Texan 
coast,  I  found  these  extensive  regions  populated  by  vast 
hordes  of  white  or  yellowish  land  crabs,  which  paraded  the 
beaches  and  climed  over  the  dunes  in  such  numbers  that 
the  eyes  could  not  be  raised  without  seeing  a  dozen  or 
more.  They  were  so  familiar  and  tame  that  several  large 
individuals  had  burrows  by  the  side  of  the  walk  which  led 
from  the  hotel,  and  readily  took  bread  thrown  to  them. 

On  the  keys  of  the  Florida  Reef  the  "  spirit  crabs,"  as 
they  are  called,  are  equally  common.  Pretending  to  be 
asleep,  I  have  often  watched  them  cautiously  approaching, 
led  by  their  curiosity  to  see  what  strange  object  this  was 
that  had  washed  ashore.  If  I  remained  perfectly  quiet, 
they  would  gather  in  dozens,  and  numbers  of  little  hermits 
would  crawl  over  me,  to  drop  off  at  the  slightest  alarm. 
In  the  water  were  countless  other  forms. 

128 


THE   CRUSTACEANS  129 

Wherever  we  go,  from  the  ocean  to  the  interior,  we  shall 
find  some  members  of  this  interesting  family.  On  almost 
any  seashore  we  shall  find  a  crab  or  crayfish,  from  which 


FlG.  128.  — -The  Norway  lobster,  showing  jointed  structure. 
HOL.  LO.  AN.  —  9 


130 


THE   CRUSTACEANS 


some  idea  of  the  structure  of  these  animals  can  be  obtained 
(Fig.  129).  We  see  that  there  are  two  distinct  regions,  the 
head  portion  and  the  tail.  The  first  mentioned  is  hard  and 
in  one  general  piece ;  the  latter  is  made  up  of  joints  or 
rings.  Everything  about  this  curious  animal  is  jointed. 
Turning  it  over  (Fig.  130),  we  see  that  it  has  five  legs  on 

Cephalo-thorax.  Abdomen. 


Ml          ! 

C     f  B  A 

FIG.  129.  —  Crayfish  seen  from  the  side,  with  that  portion  of  the  carapace 
removed  which  covers  the  branchiae,  or  gills.  The  appendages  of  the  left  side  only 
shown,  s,  region  of  stomach ;  A,  abdominal  appendages ;  Z?,  bases  of  the  four 
small  legs;  C,  base  of  large  claw;  /  "gill-bailer,",  or  flabellum,  attached  to  the 
second  maxilliped  ;  e,  eye.  (After  Morse.) 

each  side,  all  jointed.  The  first  pair  are  large  biting  claws, 
and  in  some  species  others  are  biters.  Even  the  eyes  are 
upon  stalks  and  jointed,  and  about  them  are  two  sets  of 
feelers,  whips,  or  antennas  —  one  large  and  one  small  pair 
—  which  the  animal  holds  out  before  it  as  a  blind  man 
does  a  cane.  The  mouth  is  made  up  of  many  curious 
organs  for  separating  and  grinding  food. 


THE   CRUSTACEANS 


Some  idea  of  the  various  internal  organs  of  the  crusta- 
ceans may  be  obtained  in  Figure  131.    The  breathing  organs 


FIG.  130.  —  Under  surface  of  the  crayfish  or  fresh-water  lobster  (Astacus) :  a, 
first  pair  of  antennae ;  b,  second  pair ;  c,  eyes ;  e,  foot  jaws ;  /  g ,  first  and  fifth  pair 
of  thoracic  legs ;  h,  swimmerets ;  i,  anus ;  k,  caudal  fins. 

are  conspicuous,  curled  up  like  plumes  on  each  side  of  the 
crayfish  and  attached  to  the  base  of  the  legs.  Water 
enters  the  shell  under  the  edge, 
back  of  the  great  claws,  and 
is  swept  along  over  them  by 
a  little  organ  called  the  gill 
bailer,  the  gills  taking  up  oxy- 
gen from  the  water,  which  in 
turn  is  absorbed  by  the  color- 
less blood.  The  brain  is  very  FlG-  ^ -A  shrimp,  showing 

anatomy:   s,  stomach;   /,   liver;   t, 
Small,  and    nerves    Can    be    Seen      intestine;    h,    heart;   gt    chain    of 

passing  from  it  to  the  various    ganglia;  *•  h( 

organs.     The  ears  are  situated  at  the  base  of  the  small 

or  first  antennae,  and  are  little  sacks  on  the  upper  side 


132 


THE   CRUSTACEANS 


containing   a   thick   fluid   in   which    are    floating    minute 
grains  of  sand.     The  tail  portion  is  made  up  of  a  number 

of  rings  or  segments,  and  is  pro- 
vided with  small  swimmerets.  At 
the  extreme  end  are  seen  five  pad- 
dlelike  or  fanlike  organs  (Fig.  1 32), 
which  constitute  a  most  important 
swimming  organ  to  the  lobsters 
and  crayfishes,  by  the  violently 
flapping  of  which  they  dash  away  backward.  In  color 
the  crayfish  is  yellowish  brown  or  greenish.  When  alive 
it  presents  (Fig.  133)  an  attractive  appearance. 


FIG.  132.  — Paddles  of  lobster. 


FIG.  133.  —  Fresh-water  crayfish. 

The  crustaceans  deposit  eggs  which  they  carry  about 
with  them  attached  to  the  swimmerets,  and  resembling 
minute  bunches  of  grapes.  When  first  hatched  (Fig.  134) 


THE  CRUSTACEANS 


133 


the  young  crustaceans  are  totally  unlike  the  parent  in 
appearance,  passing  through  several  stages  before  they 
reach  the  adult  form.  When  the  crustacean  grows  too 
large  for  its  shell,  what  are  known  as  casting  hairs  appear 
on  the  inner  side,  which  push  the  shell  upward. 


FIG.  134.  —  Stages  of  development  in  a  crab. 

I  have  watched  this  process  in  the  California  sea  cray- 
fish, and  it  is  generally  accomplished  at  night.  The  flesh 
of  the  animal  appears  to  become  very  watery  and  soft  at 
this  time.  Finally  the  animal  bursts  the  shell  and  by  a 
slow  and  convulsive  effort  drags  the  flesh  from  claws,  eyes, 
swimmerets,  and  antennae,  and  escapes  through  the  upper 
portion  of  the  division  between  the  head  and  tail,  and 
presto  !  we  have  two  animals  ;  one  flabby  and  very  nervous, 
the  other  the  deserted  shell,  yet  seemingly  alive.  The 
crayfish  is  very  helpless  now,  and  secretes  itself  for  several 
days  until  the  new  skin  hardens,  when  it  appears  in  a 
freshly  colored  coat  of  yellow  and  black. 


XV.     FROM   BARNACLES  TO  LOBSTERS 

IN  strolling  along  the  shore  one  may  often  find  pieces 
of  wood  washed  in  by  the  combing  waves,  which  are  cov- 
ered with  white  and  blue-tinted  objects,  resembling  dates 
(Fig.  135).  They  have  long,  fleshy  stems,  and  appear  to 


FIG.  135.  —  Goose  barnacles. 

have  a  number  of  plates  or  shells,  and  are  by  many  consid- 
ered shells.  Other  floating  matter  will  be  found  covered 
with  small  white  objects  (Fig.  136),  and  many  of  the 
rocks  alongshore  are  so  completely  encrusted  by  them 
that  the  surface  of  the  rock  is  concealed.  On  the  backs 


FROM   BARNACLES   TO   LOBSTERS 


135 


FlG.  136.  —  The  barna- 
cle :  A,  from  above ;  B, 
section  from  the  side. 


of    whales    are  found  similar  objects,   often  three  inches 

across  and  two  inches  high.     These  are  barnacles,  cousins 

of  the  crabs,  which  secrete  multivalve 

shells    and   are   anchored   to  various 

floating  or  submerged  objects.     They 

are    crustaceans  which    are   attached 

to  the  bottom  by  their  antennae. 

If  the  shell  of  a  barnacle  is  care- 
fully observed,  fluffy,  feathery  objects 
may  be  seen  coming  out  with  regular 
motion.  These  are  the  feet  of  the 
crustacean,  which  in  the  barnacles 
are  modified  into  food  catchers,  grasp- 
ing at  the  minute  animals  contained 
in  the  water.  What  are  called  goose 
barnacles  have  long  stems,  and  the 
old  writers  considered  them  young  geese  which  grew  on 
trees  and  finally  fell  into  the  water.  I  have  found  a  goose 
barnacle  in  the  mouth  of  a  large  sunfish,  so  placed  that  the 
barnacle  swung  clear  of  the  curious  teeth  of  the  fish.  They 
are  also  found  on  the  feathers  of  penguins  in  the  South 
Pacific.  Every  floating  timber  or  wreck  at  sea  is  covered 
with  the  curious,  long-stemmed  creatures.  The  barnacles 
deposit  eggs,  and  the  young  are  at  first  free  swimming,  but 
soon  acquire  a  shell,  seek  the  bottom,  or  some  floating  ob- 
ject, and  become  fixtures  for  life. 

Many  of  the  crustaceans  are  so  small  that  but  few  per- 
sons ever  see  them.  Such  is  Cyclops  (Fig.  137),  a  minute 
creature  seen  distinctly  only  under  a  microscope,  yet 
swimming  in  fresh  water  and  readily  recognized  by  its  egg 
pouches,  one  on  either  side  of  the  tail.  The  eggs  hatch 


136 


FROM    BARNACLES   TO   LOBSTERS 


out  into  singular  little  objects,  having  very  little  resem- 
blance to  the  parent. 
The  Cyclops  and  others 
are  very  tenacious  of  life. 
When  pools  and  streams 
dry  up  and  remain  so 
for  months,  they  lie 
dormant,  coming  to  life 
again  with  the  return  of 
the  water.  Many  of  this 
group  are  parasites  upon 
fishes,  as  the  Lernaeidae 
(Fig.  138),  which  appear 

,.,          ofrpomero      nn      the 

sides  of  carp  and  other 

fishes.     These  parasites,  deeply  embedded,  live  upon  the 
fish. 

2 


FIG.  137.  —  Water  fleas:   i,  Cyclops,  showing 
egg  pouches ;  2,  Cypris ;  3,  Daphnia. 


FIG.  138.  — A  parasite  of  a  fresh-water  fish  (Cyprince) :  i,  larva,  as  it  leaves  the 
egg;  2,  iarva,  more  advanced;  3,  adult  female,  showing  the  egg  sacs.  (Nord- 
mann.) 


FROM   BARNACLES   TO   LOBSTERS 


137 


Some   of   these   minute   crustaceans   are   almost  exact 
in   their   resemblance   to   shells,    as    Estheria   which   has 
a  bivalve  shell.     But  perhaps  the  most 
remarkable    creature    is    Artemis,    the 
brine  shrimp  (Fig.   139),  which  lives  in 
brine  that  would   be  deadly  to  almost 
any  other  animal.      A  strange  experi- 
ment  has   been   made  with   this    little 
creature;  thus  if  the  brine  is  very  strong 
its  form  resembles  a,  but  if  the  brine 
is  diluted,  it  changes  to  b,  a  very  differ-        FIG.     139.  —  Brine 
ent  animal,  so  different  that  it  has  been   .shrimps: a, Branchipus; 

b,  Artemis. 

given  another   name.      Many    shrimps 
seem  to  prefer  extreme  cold.     The  Apus  (Fig.  140),  with- 
stands freezing,  and  hatches  readily  in  the  icy  water  of 

the  far  north.  This  little 
creature  has  forty-seven  seg- 
ments and  one  hundred  and 
twenty  legs.  The  fairy  shrimp 
is  a  dainty  and  beautiful  crus- 
tacean with  a  marvelous  array 
of  leaflike  feet  which  also 
serve  as  breathing  organs. 

In  the  summer,  while  strol- 
ling alongshore,  one  may  find 
that  every  piece  of  seaweed 
or  rock  when  turned  over 
affords  concealment  to  myr- 
iads of  "sand  fleas"  which 
belong  to  a  group  of  crustaceans  having  fourteen  feet. 
The  sand  fleas,  true  to  their  name,  are  remarkable  jumpers, 


FIG.  140.  —  Apus. 


138  FROM    BARNACLES    TO    LOBSTERS 

darting  in  all  directions  and  looking  very  much  like  an 
ordinary  flea  (Fig.   141).     They  are  valuable  scavengers, 

eating  all  kinds  of  refuse  matter. 
They  have  the  most  bizarre 
shapes,  and  many,  as  Arcturus, 
resemble  twigs  or  pieces  of  sea- 
weed, extremely  difficult  to  see 
and  doubtless  owe  their  immunity 
from  attack  to  this  cause.  This 

FIG.  141.  — Sand  flea  (  Tahtrus). 

Arcturus  (Fig.   142)  is  not  only 

a  remarkable  mimic,  but  carries  its  young  upon  its  back. 
Idotea  is  a  common  form 
about  piers,  while  the 
little  Gammarus  may  be 
caught  with  almost  every 
haul  of  a  very  fine  net 
At  times  one  known  as 
Podocerus  builds  a  sin- 
gular nest  for  its  better 

i  c     ,  FlG.  142.  —  Arcturus  longicornis.  enlarged. 

security,  and  one  of  the 

giants  of  the  tribe  has  eyes  so  huge  that  they  are  made 

up  of  facets  and  entirely  cover  the  head. 

One  of  these  crustaceans,  Limnoria,  is  among  the  most 
destructive  of  all  animals  to  the  work  of  man.  On  the 
Pacific  coast  they  vie  with  the  teredo,  and  on  the  coast  of 
southern  California  are  the  chief  aggressors,  the  life  of  a 
prepared  pile  being  less  than  two  years.  The  little  crea- 
tures completely  perforate  it,  so  that  the  wood  literally 
falls  in  pieces,  being  so  closely  filled  with  circular  borings 
that  the  entire  interior  of  the  pile  seems  to  have  disap- 
peared. 


FROM    BARNACLES    TO    LOBSTERS 


139 


One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  crustaceans,  in  my 
estimation,  is  the  mantis  shrimp,  or  Squilla  (Fig.  143), 
which  I  have  kept  alive.  It  is  found  in  deep  and  shallow 
water,  and  is  a  most  remarkable 
creature  both  in  shape  and  color. 
Its  head  is  ornamented  with 
beautifully  tinted  antennae,  vivid 
blues,  greens,  and  yellows  pre- 
dominating. Its  claws  are  sharp 
pointed,  and  deadly  weapons 
when  used  against  its  prey.  The 
finlets  are  richly  tinted  and  in 
such  rapid  motion  that  they 
appear  to  be  a  mass  of  revolving 
wheels,  so  that  the  Squilla  resem- 
bles some  strange  product  of  the 
imagination  rather  than  a  living 
animal.  Its  young  are  even  more 
remarkable. 

One  of  the  best-known  groups 
of  crustaceans  is  represented  by 
those  with  ten  feet,  of  which  the 
common  lobster  (Fig.  144)  is  a  familiar  example.  In  this 
instance  the  first  pair  of  legs  are  developed  into  enormous 
biting  claws ;  yet  when  the  lobster  sheds  its  skin  all  the 
flesh  in  the  large  claws  is  drawn  through  the  very  small 
joint.  The  lobster  is  a  product  of  the  colder  waters  of  the 
North  Atlantic,  not  being  known  on  the  Pacific  slope, 
although  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  it  there. 
South  of  Long  Island  Sound  it  is  very  rare,  and  despite 
the  stringent  laws  for  its  preservation,  is  rapidly  being 


FIG.  143.  —  Mantis  shrimp 
(Squilla). 


140 


FROM    BARNACLES   TO   LOBSTERS 


exterminated.     Lobsters  are  caught  in  traps,  called  lobster 
pots,   which    are    lowered    into    the    kelp   and    seaweed. 


FIG.  144.  —  Common  lobster. 


FROM    BARNACLES   TO    LOBSTERS  141 

Twenty  years  ago  the  annual  catch  for  the  state  of  Maine 
was  nearly  fifteen  million  pounds,  valued  at  $250,000. 
It  is  far  less  to-day.  The  lobster  sometimes  attains  a 
weight  of  fifty  pounds  ;  but  specimens  weighing  four  or 
five  pounds  are  now  rare,  due  to  overcatching,  and  the 
destruction  of  the  undersized  young.  The  color  of  the 
animal  when  alive  is  a  dark  green.  The  familiar  red  hue 
is  the  result  of  cooking.  The  eggs  of  the  lobster  are 
laid  in  March,  and  are  masses  of  green  spheres  which  are 
carried  about  by  the  female  attached  to  her  swimmerets. 

In  southern  waters  and  on  the  Pacific  coast,  the  place 
of  the  lobster  is  taken  by  the  crayfish,  or  spiny  lobster 
(Fig.  145).  The  resemblance  to  the  lobster  is  almost 
exact  with  this  exception :  instead  of  large  biting  claws, 
the  latter  are  but  slightly  larger  than  the  ordinary  claws, 
ending  with  a  sharp  point,  while  the  antennae  or  feelers 
are  enlarged  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  becoming  highly 
serrated  and  defensive  organs  in  every  sense.  The 
Florida  crayfish  is  a  rich  reddish  yellow,  mottled  color, 
while  the  California  form  is  a  greenish  yellow.  On  the 
Florida  Reef  almost  every  coral  branch  or  coral  head  hides 
a  crayfish,  the  whips  being  seen  waving  to  and  fro. 
This  is  their  day  retreat,  but  at  night  they  wander  forth 
to  feed  in  the  luxuriant  pastures  of  Algae,  or  seaweeds,  of 
various  kinds  found  in  the  lagoons.  By  going  out  early  in 
the  morning,  before  sunrise,  I  have  often  surprised  the 
crayfishes,  the  bottom  being  covered  with  them,  massive 
fellows  weighing  eight  or  ten  pounds.  They  are  not  so 
delicate  in  flavor  as  the  lobster,  but  are  very  valuable  as 
bait.  The  lobster  and  the  Pacific  crayfish  are  both  canned, 
the  industry  being  an  important  one. 


142  FROM   BARNACLES   TO   LOBSTERS 

The  prawns  (Fig.  146)  and  shrimps  are  well  known  and 
valuable  members  of   this  group,  swarming  in  the  same 


FIG.  145.  —  Crayfish  or  spiny  lobster. 

waters,  and  among  the  most  graceful  of  the  tribe.     Many 
are  absolutely  transparent,  the  large  black  eyes  alone  being 


FROM    BARNACLES   TO   LOBSTERS  143 

seen.  The  chameleon  shrimp  is  noted  for  its  rapid  changes 
of  color,  green,  brown,  and  reddish  hues  following  each 
other  over  its  crystallike  body.  In  the  deeper  waters 
marvelous  shrimps  have  been  found,  nearly  all  a  dazzling 
red.  Some  of  the  East  Indian  shrimps  are  giants  two 


B 


FIG.  146.  —  A,  prawn;  B,  claw  enlarged. 

feet  in  length.  In  England  horses  are  employed  to  catch 
shrimps.  A  large  dragnet  is  set  in  shallow  water  to 
which  the  horse  is  fastened,  the  fisherman,  mounted,  driv- 
ing the  animal  over  the  shallow  flats,  hauling  the  nets  in- 
shore. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  ten-footed  crusta- 
ceans  is   the   blind   crayfish    of    Mammoth    Cave.     It  is 


144  FROM   BARNACLES   TO   LOBSTERS 

found  also  in  various  subterranean  streams  of  the  coun- 
try. The  eyestalk  of  these  little  creatures  is  all  that 
remains  to  tell  the  story  of  what  was  once  an  eye,  and 
they  live  and  thrive  in  perfect  darkness.  The  ordinary 
crayfish  of  Western  streams  has  a  peculiar  habit  of  burrow- 
ing, which  at  times  has  occasioned  great  damage  in  under- 
mining dikes  and  dams.  I  once  came  upon  a  remarkable 
crayfish  community  in  Indiana.  There  had  been  a  flood 
the  day  previous,  and  every  log  in  the  neighborhood  and 
the  piers  of  the  bridge  were  covered  with  crayfish  which, 
in  this  locality  at  least,  appeared  to  be  endeavoring  to 
escape  from  too  much  water.  On  all  sides,  some  yards 
from  the  creek  and  high  above  it,  the  ground  was  raised 
into  small  heaps  six  or  eight  inches  across,  each,  as  I  dis- 
covered, being  the  home  of  a  crayfish,  and  as  far  as  the  eye 
could  see  on  the  prairie  were  these  mounds  and  heaps, 
suggestive  of  the  vast  numbers  of  these  little  animals  in 
this  vicinity. 


XVI.     THE   CRABS 

OF  all  the  crustaceans,  the  crabs  are  the  most  singular 
and  certainly  the  most  intelligent.  Rapid  in  movement, 
good  swimmers,  alert,  garbed  in  extraordinary  colors,  often 
in  stolen  homes,  they  attract  attention  at  once  and  are  the 
harlequins  and  clowns  of  the  animal  kingdom.  The  crabs 
are  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  group  principally  by 
their  very  short  tails.  Their  bodies  are  round,  elongated, 
or  oval.  They  are  found  almost  everywhere,  from  the  deep 
sea,  where  they  occupy  shells  and  sometimes  drag  about  a 
luminous  sea  anemone,  to  every  beach.  It  is  in  or  near 
the  tropics  that  the  most  remarkable  crabs  are  seen. 

During  a  visit  to  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  Texas,  I 
once  found  a  remarkable  crab  community.  The  islands 
were  flat  sand  banks  just  above  the  surface,  blown  and 
washed  up  by  the  sea,  with  here  and  there  sand  dunes  and 
shrubs,  and  again  vast  stretches  of  sand  inhabited  only  by 
crabs.  The  latter  were  all  of  one  kind,  a  pale  gray,  so 
mimicking  the  sand  in  color  that  it  was  almost  impossible 
to  distinguish  one  from  the  other.  There  were  legions  of 
them,  the  sand  in  places  being  fairly  riddled  with  their 
burrows,  into  which  they  darted  with  inconceivable  rapid- 
ity. As  I  walked  along  the  sands  they  ran  ahead  in 
rapidly  increasing  numbers,  then  divided  and  were  so  quick 
of  foot  that  it  was  impossible  to  run  them  down.  This 
vast  army  of  crabs  was  the  sanitary  corps  of  the  island, 

HOL.   LO.   AN. —  10  145 


146  THE  CRABS 

devouring  every  dead   fish   that   came   ashore  and  other 
animal  matter  of  all  kinds. 

At  Garden  Key,  Florida,  these  crabs  were  found  in 
swarms,  rarely  entering  the  water  except  when  driven, 
and  never  venturing  far  from  the  reach  of  the  highest 
waves  at  high  tide.  They  had  long,  stalked  eyes,  which 
seem  to  follow  every  movement,  and  were  very  comical 
and  interesting  creatures  to  watch  and  study.  On  the  keys 
covered  with  bay  cedars  were  other  land  crabs  (Fig.  147), 


FIG.  147.  — A  land  crab  (Gecarcinus). 


colored  rich  red  and  purple.  These  crabs  lived  among 
the  cactuses  and  bay  cedar  bushes.  When  climbing  on 
the  former  their  resemblance  in  shape  and  color  to  the 
purple  fruit  was  remarkable,  and  if  the  crab  remained 
quiet,  it  was  almost  impossible  to  distinguish  it.  In  these 
bushes  a  tern,  the  noddy,  had  built  its  rude  brush  nest, 
and  the  young  bird  and  the  food  brought  it  by  the  parents 
were  the  objects  of  marked  attention  on  the  part  of  not 
only  the  purple-backed  crab  but  a  hungry,  starving  horde 
of  hermit  crabs  which  climbed  the  tree  and  snatched  the 


THE   CRABS  147 

bits  of  fish  from  the  young  birds,  despite  the  presence  of 
their  mother.  By  crawling  beneath  the  thick  brush  in 
heat  which  was  almost  suffocating,  I  watched  numbers  of 
these  foraging  expeditions  on  the  part  of  the  crabs,  and  I 
think  it  possible  that  some  of  the  larger  crabs  finally 
carried  off  the  young  birds.  This  was  not  an  impossible 
feat,  as  Professor  Mosely,  of  the  Challenger  deep-sea 
dredging  expedition,  observed  the  same  crab  or  a  very 
near  relative,  carry  off  young  birds  at  St.  Paul's  Rocks. 
At  Ascension  he  saw  the  doughty  land  crabs  stealing 
young  rabbits,  dragging  them  from  their  holes  by  main 
force  and  devouring  them.  This  crab  with  gorgeous 
colors  was  not  very  fleet  of  foot,  and  when  I  rose  up 
suddenly  in  the  cactus  by  a  nest  they  would  draw  in 
their  legs  and  cling  to  a  branch,  mimicking  ripe  fruit. 
The  hermits  would  do  the  same,  and  fall  to  the  ground 
in  a  shower. 

An  interesting  crab  found  here  is  known  as  Grapsus, 
also  a  predatory  creature  with  unequaled  courage,  prey- 
ing upon  every  living  thing  that  it  can  attack  with  safety. 
It  is  richly  colored  red  and  white ;  its  legs  are  long ;  it  is  a 
racer  along  the  sands,  impossible  to  capture.  On  the 
West  African  coast  these  crabs,  or  a  near  relative,  are 
very  large,  and  so  swift  that  they  have  been  used  in  sport, 
horsemen  following  them  at  full  speed  as  game. 

The  ordinary  crab  of  the  Eastern  shore  is  highly  valued, 
and  vast  numbers  are  shipped  from  Fort  Monroe  in  Vir- 
ginia to  the  northern  cities.  The  trade  in  "soft  shells" 
is  even  more  important.  The  latter  are  caught  in  various 
ways.  An  old  colored  man  of  my  acquaintance  used  to 
tread  for  them  on  the  mud  flats  with  his  bare  feet ;  but  he 


148  THE   CRABS 

confessed  that  it  was  a  disagreeable  business,  as  sometimes 
he* stepped  on  "hard  shells"  by  mistake  and  was  badly 
bitten. 

The  English  edible  crab  is  of  large  size  and  always  in 
demand,  resembling  the  edible  crab  of  the  Pacific,  which  is 
also  very  large  and  greatly  esteemed. 

That  these  crabs  have  a  strong  homing  sense,  or  an 
affection  for  certain  localities,  was  demonstrated  some 
years  ago.  Two  crab  fishermen  were  following  their  occu- 
pation from  the  same  boat,  and  each  as  he  caught  a  crab 
cut  upon  its  swimming  claw  a  private  mark  so  that  they 
could  be  claimed  by  the  rightful  owners  at  the  end  of  the 
day.  The  boat  was  overtaken  by  a  storm  and  the  crabs 
were  tipped  overboard  five  miles  from  where  they  were 
caught  and  lost.  The  following  week  the  two  men  again 
began  to  fish  in  the  original  spot,  and  to  their  amazement 
began  to  catch  the  marked  crabs,  which  had  returned  five 
miles  alongshore  to  the  locality  of  their  choice. 

The  so-called  green  crab  (Fig.  148)  is  an  attractive -and 
active  creature,  one  that  can  easily  be  observed.  Its 
quaint  stalked  eyes,  which  turn  this  way  and  that,  and 
which  can  be  stowed  away  in  little  depressions,  and  its 
singular  method  of  walking,  are  very  interesting  features. 
When  a  crab  walks  on  land  it  is  usually  endwise,  and 
when  it  wishes  to  change  its  course  it  is  not  obliged  to  turn 
about  but  moves  its  legs  in  the  opposite  direction.  It  can 
also  move  directly  ahead.  These  movements  are  all 
performed  by  six  legs,  which  are  pointed,  the  trail  of 
this  crab  on  the  sand  resembling  pin  marks  on  the  hard 
beach.  The  two  front  claws  are  for  tearing  food  and  for 
general  defense,  while  the  last  pair,  widened  out  at  the  end 


THE   CRABS 


149 


in   some,  are  paddles   by  which  the  crab  swims  when  it 
ventures  off  the  bottom. 

At  times  the  crabs  appear  to  migrate.  I  have  seen  the 
bottom  of  a  bay  on  the  Virginian  coast  so  covered  that  it 
was  impossible  to  wade  without  stepping  upon  a  crab.  In 
the  island  of  Jamaica  certain  land  crabs  march  to  the  sea 


FIG.  148.  — The  green  crab. 


to  deposit  their  eggs,  at  which  time  they  appear  more  or 
less  indifferent  to  danger,  and  move  on,  despite  the  attacks 
of  birds  and  various  animals,  including  man. 

The  crabs  known  as  fiddlers  (Fig.  149)  are  common  up 
and  down  the  Atlantic  coast,  especially  in  the  warmer 
portions.  A  most  interesting  colony  lived  north  of  Fer- 
nandina,  Florida.  Some  years  ago  a  plank  walk  led 
across  their  domain,  and  one  could  stand  and  watch  their 


150  THE  CRABS 

ludicrous  maneuvers.  The  fiddler  is  not  over  an  inch  in 
length.  It  is  of  a  dark  ivory  hue,  and  its  eyes  are  perched 
on  long  stalks,  so  that  it  can  bury  itself  in  the  mud  and 
thrust  its  eyes  upward,  and  thus  in  perfect  safety  observe 
everything  that  is  going  on.  The  right  claw  of  this  crab 
is  half  as  long  again  as  its  entire  body  —  a  colossal  weapon 
framed  for  an  animal  five  or  ten  times  its  size.  Indeed, 
it  is  so  large  as  to  be  almost  useless,  for  a  large  amount  of 


FIG.  149.  — Fiddler  crab. 


strength  is  required  to  operate  so  gigantic  an  implement. 
To  emphasize  the  undue  size  of  this  claw,  the  left  one  is  a 
dwarf,  being  too  small  to  act  as  a  defensive  weapon.  How 
so  small  a  crab  can  use  so  strange  a  pair  of  weapons  was 
a  puzzle,  until  by  watching  them,  I  discovered  that  the 
crab  uses  its  large  claw  as  a  bogy,  brandishing  it  fiercely, 
which  gives  it  a  very  ferocious  appearance.  The  move- 
ment of  the  claw  back  and  forth  is  called  fiddling,  hence 
the  name  of  the  crab,  which  appears  to  be  constantly 


THE   CRABS  15 1 

fiddling.  Where  hundreds  are  seen,  all  fiddling  and  mena 
cing  one  another  at  the  same  time,  the  sight  is  laughable. 
Once  while  lifting  branch  coral  into  my  boat  on  a  coral 
reef,  several  crabs  fell  from  the  olive-hued  mass,  and  like 
spiders  in  shape  and  form,  made  their  way  slowly  along. 
Each  one  was  covered  with  a  growth  of  seaweed.  I 


FIG.  150.  — Spider  crab. 


took  a  brush  and  scoured  them,  producing  veritable 
spider  crabs  (Fig.  150).  The  body  was  pear-shaped; 
the  claws  were  long  and  covered  with  sharp  points. 
These  crabs  were  placed  in  a  tank,  and  almost  immediately 
began  to  replace  the  seaweed  which  had  been  rubbed  off, 
evidently  being  much  annoyed  at  the  cleaning  process. 


152  THE  CRABS 

In  redecorating  themselves  they  broke  off  small  bits 
of  seaweed  from  a  branch,  placed  the  broken  portion 
against  the  mouth,  evidently  to  attach  some  glutinous  mat- 
ter or  animal  mucilage,  then  raising  it  with  an  overhand 
movement,  they  attached  it  to  the  back.  This  was  continu- 
ally repeated  until  within  a  few  hours  the  back  of  each 
crab  was  changed  from  a  smooth  surface  to  a  miniature 
garden.  As  many  times  as  the  seaweed  was  removed,  so 
many  times  was  it  replaced. 

The  spider  crabs  range  from  the  beautiful  scarlet  crea- 
tures found  in  the  coral  to  the  giant  Macrocheira  of  Japan, 
which  in  large  specimens  has  a  spread  of  legs  of  twenty 
feet,  some  measuring  twenty-two  feet  between  the  two 
large  biting  claws,  each  of  which  is  ten  and  a  half  feet 
long.  This  huge  crab  is  very  slender,  and  is  slow  of  move- 
ment, its  body  resembling  a  rough  rock. 

Crabs  select  singular  places  for  homes.  One  lives  in  the 
sea  cucumber ;  others  live  in  corals,  which  appear  to  grow 

over  them,  forming  a  gall 
(Fig.  151).  The  little  oyster 
crab  found  in  bivalves  is 
a  familiar  form.  But  per- 
haps the  most  remarkable 
home  for  a  crab  was  the  bowl 
FIG.  151.— Crabs  that  form  galls  of  an  old  tobacco  pipe  in 

on  corals:  a,  Cryptockirus  (male);  b,  ,  •    i_                 IT                               j 

Coralliodytes  (female)  ;   c,  Hapalocar-  which    a    Crab    I    OnCC    Owned 

cinus  marsupialis  (female),  that  carries  ensconced  itself.  This  Was 
its  young  in  a  sac  or  marsupium. 

a    hermit    crab    (Fig.    152). 

The  hermits  differ  from  other  crabs  in  having  a  long,  but 
soft  and  totally  unprotected  tail  or  abdomen,  to  preserve 
which  they  enter  empty  shells  and  drag  them  about  wher- 


THE   CRABS  153 

ever  they  go.  The  hermits  occur  in  great  variety,  and 
there  are  marine  hermits  and  land  hermits.  On  the 
Florida  Reef  they  are  found  in  myriads  ;  every  shell  along- 
shore conceals  a  baby  hermit ;  and  almost  every  nook  or 
cranny  affords  concealment  for  a  score  of  them,  their  red 
and  blue  claws  forming  an  attractive  contrast  to  the  shell. 
The  hermit  referred  to  was  first  found  in  a  pearly  shell 
and  placed  in  the  office,  but  finally  it  outgrew  this  and  de- 
serted it  for  the  pipe  which  some  workmen  had  left  on  the 


FIG.  152.  —  Hermit  crab. 

floor.  Every  day  this  old  pipe  would  be  clanked  and 
dragged  about  the  room,  and  once  in  a  while  the  crab  would 
drag  it  up  a  table  leg,  so  reaching  the  tablecloth  and  then 
the  table  top,  where  it  drank  out  of  a  saucer  left  for  the 
purpose.  Later  a  marine  hermit  was  found  in  a  pipe  bowl, 
proudly  dragging  the  grotesque  house  about.  Anything 
of  this  kind  would  be  used  by  the  hermits.  One  was 
found  in  the  opening  of  a  spool;  and  this  would  roll  over 
and  over,  carrying  the  hermit  with  it.  Another  took  pos- 


154  THE  CRABS 

session  of  a  reed.  Among  deep-sea  sponges  the  hermits 
are  seen  occupying  holes  in  the  sponges. 

A  community  of  hermits  is  a  laughable  sight.  They  are 
very  pugilistic,  and  are  always  fighting.  When  a  hermit 
outgrows  its  shell  and  begins  to  feel  uncomfortable  it  en- 
deavors to  turn  out  some  comrade  that  has  a  larger  shell, 
and  in  the  battle  arms  and  claws  are  often  lost.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  serious,  as  they  grow  again.  When  the  hermit 
finds  an  empty  shell  it  thrusts  in  its  claws  and  antennae, 
probing  it  in  every  direction  to  see  that  it  is  not  occupied. 
When  satisfied,  it  jerks  itself  out  of  its  own  shell,  and  with 
the  greatest  rapidity  whisks  its  soft  unprotected  body  into 
the  new  house,  where,  if  it  fits,  it  remains.  The  shell,  when 
large,  is  not  carried,  but  dragged  about,  and  when  the  crab 
is  alarmed  or  startled  it  darts  backward  into  the  shell, 
where  its  large  claw  and  the  others  constitute  almost  as 
good  a  door  as  the  real  operculum  of  shells.  The  largest 
hermits  are  the  marine  forms,  which  enter  the  large  conch 
shells  and  drag  them  about.  These  hermits  are  a  brilliant 
red  in  color.  Their  claws  are  very  rough. 

Closely  related  to  the  hermit  crabs  is  the  famous  cocoa- 
nut  crab  or  Birgos  of  the  Spice  Islands.  This  crab  is  so 
strong  and  powerful  that,  as  Professor  Van  Beneden 
states,  one  clinging  to  a  tree,  seized  a  small  goat  and 
lifted  it  from  the  ground  by  the  ears.  The  Birgos 
resembles  a  huge  hermit  crab,  but  has  no  artificial  shell, 
the  soft  abdomen  being  protected  by  a  shell  of  its  own. 
This  large  land  crab  lives  mainly  on  cocoanuts,  which  it 
secures  by  climbing  the  trees  and  biting  off  the  stems. 
Descending,  the  crab  will  take  the  nut  and  with  remarka- 
ble discrimination  hold  it  with  one  claw  and  with  the  other 


THE  CRABS 


155 


tear  off  the  husk,  always  at  the  end  containing  the  "eyes." 
This  stripping  process,  impossible  to  man  without  some 
implement,  is  remarkable  in  itself,  and  tells  the  story  of 
the  muscular  strength  of  the  crab.  When  the  "  eyes  "  of 
the  nut  are  exposed,  the  crab  seizes  it  by  inserting  its 
claws  in  the  holes,  and  hammers  the  shell  until  it  is  broken. 
The  crabs  live  at  the  base  of  the  trees  and  line  their  dens 
with  the  husk. 


A 


FlG.  153.  —  Horseshoe  crab :  At  upper  side ;  B,  lower  side. 

In  ancient  times  crablike  creatures  existed,  eight  or  nine 
feet  in  length.  These  are  represented  to-day  by  the  quaint 
horseshoe  or  king  crabs  (Fig.  153).  They  are  found 
in  shallow  water  in  Northern  waters,  and  resemble  a  horse- 
shoe with  a  long,  sharp  spike  or  spine  —  the  tail  of  this 
strange  animal. 


XVII.     LUMINOUS  CRABS 

ONE  of  the  interesting  experiences  of  Nordenskiold  in 
the  Arctic  Ocean  was  wading  through  the  sludge,  as  the 
soft  snow  water  along  the  beach  is  called,  and  seeing  each 
footprint  turn  into  a  mass  of  light,  caused  by  the  phos- 
phorescence of  a  small  crustacean  called  Metridia.  The 
light  was  bluish  white,  of  great  intensity,  and  although  at 
times  the  cold  was  so  severe  that  mercury  would  freeze, 
yet  everywhere  this  marvelous  light  blazed.  Even  drops 
and  splashes  of  the  water  seemed  to  be  molten  metal,  but 
were  merely  alive  with  this  minute  light  giver  resembling 
Cyclops.  In  the  Pacific,  especially  in  summer,  the  exhibi- 
tion of  what  might  be  called  "  crab  light "  is  marvelous, 
and  this  is  often  true  in  the  Atlantic.  The  light  following 
the  splash  of  an  oar,  the  spray  hurled  aside  by  the  cut 
water,  the  foaming  water  around  a  propeller,  and  the 
strange  shifting  specter  which  follows  the  rudder,  are 
caused  more  or  less  by  minute  crustaceans  which  have  the 
faculty  of  emitting  light  without  heat. 

Along  the  beach  beneath  seaweed,  we  shall  find  Gam- 
marus,  a  long,  very  small,  but  mighty  jumper,  that  at  night 
emits  a  red  light.  Many  of  the  near  relatives  of  this  little 
creature  are  phosphorescent,  and  perhaps  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  all  is  one  named  Idotea  phosphorea.  It  is  a  yellow- 
ish spotted  little  creature  found  in  pools  alongshore.  It 
darts  about  among  the  weed,  and  would  rarely,  if  ever,  be 
noticed  during  the  day ;  but  at  night  the  entire  animal  seems 

156 


LUMINOUS  CRABS  157 

permeated  with  a  golden  light  which  marks  it  in  vivid  lines 
against  the  dark  bottom,  and  flashes  and  miniature  meteors 
indicate  it  as  it  dashes  across  the  little  pool,  its  ocean 
world. 

The  most  beautiful  of  all  crustaceans  is  the  one  known 
as  Sapphirina.  I  have  seen  the  ocean  filled  with  them; 
some  red,  others  blue  or  yellow,  purple  or  green,  all  known 
gems  being  imitated  by  these  matchless  gems  of  the  sea, 
which  in  daylight  vie  with  the  most  brilliant  iridescence  in 
producing  wonderful  displays.  No  more  beautiful  scene 
can  be  imagined  than  that  embracing  these  living  gems, 
standing  out  in  brilliant  tints  against  the  deep  blue  of  the 
ocean.  These  gems  also  have  the  gift  of  phosphorescence 
and  at  night  appear  in  a  new  guise. 

One  of , the  singular  long-legged  spider  crabs  of  the  deep 
sea,  Colossendeis,  is  said  to  be  phosphorescent.  Giglioli, 
the  Italian  naturalist,  describes  a  crab  which  gives  a 
golden  purple  light,  the  latter  appearing  from  the  thorax. 
The  little  shrimp,  Mysis,  which  carries  its  young  in  a 
pouch,  from  which  it  is  called  the  opossum  shrimp,  is  not 
phosphorescent,  but  its  young  in  what  is  called  the  zoe'a 
stage  are  luminous.  The  odd-shaped  little  creature,  which 
is  the  mantis  shrimp  in  one  of  its  stages,  is  brilliantly 
luminous,  not  over  its  entire  body,  but  in  the  eyestalks. 
Some  of  the  deep-sea  crabs  have  luminous  eyes,  strange 
monsters  wandering  in  the  abysmal  regions  of  the  deep 
sea. 

While  most  of  these  crabs  have  the  light  in  only  one 
place,  one  discovered  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks  was  luminous 
over  its  entire  surface.  Exactly  what  the  luminous  matter 
is,  is  not  known,  but  in  some  instances  it  can  be  scraped 


158  LUMINOUS  CRABS 

off  and  will  render  the  hands  luminous  when  rubbed  upon 
them.  According  to  A.  M.  Norman,  naturalist  of  the 
Porcupine  expedition,  the  crustacean  Ethusa,  found  at 
a  depth  of  eighteen  hundred  feet,  is  blind,  its  eyestalk  being 
spiny,  and  the  eye  replaced  by  a  smooth,  round  termination 
which  is  supposed  to  be  a  light-emitting  organ.  Aristeus 
has  phosphorescent  eyes,  which  blaze  with  the  yellow  fire 
of  a  cat's  eye,  and  this  is  true  of  many  other  crustaceans. 
Some  have  luminous  backs ;  others  have  fiery  bands  upon 
the  legs,  while  almost  every  portion  of  the  body  of  some 
species  is  the  seat  of  this  wonderful  light.  That  the  lights 
are  of  some  use  there  can  be  little  doubt.  In  one  little 
creature  Dr.  Gunther  found  a  brilliant  light  stationed  be- 
tween its  eyes,  which  certainly  was  a  light  to  illumine  its 
way  in  the  deep,  dark  bed  of  the  ocean. 


XVIII.     THE   INSECTS 


AMONG  the  best-known  and  attractive  members  of  the 
lower  animal  kingdom  are  the  insects,  represented  by  the 
gorgeous  butterflies,  the  iridescent  beetles,  the  fierce 
spiders,  and  many  others.  The  crustaceans  may  almost 


Maxilla  -----  -—  .    .                         &     *» 

Mandible  .............        ...                  j/i      A 



Ldbrum  ^ 

Compound  eye.  IjT~^.  

Mouth-partt. 


First  leg. 


i 


Third  leg.' 


ABDOMEN. 


FlG.  154.  —  Parts  of  a  typical  insect 

be  called  the  insects  of  the  ocean,  as  in  general  appearance 
they  closely  resemble  these  animals;  but  the  real  insects 
are  higher  forms. 

The  skeleton  (Fig.  154)  of  an  insect  is  divided  into  three 
distinct  parts  instead  of  two.     The  head  is  distinct  from 

159 


i6o 


THE   INSECTS 


the  body,  as  in  the  crabs,  and  the  skeleton,  like  that  of 
the  crabs,  is  external,  and  formed  of  a  horny  substance 
called  chitin.  As  in  the  crabs,  the  body  is  made  up 
of  rings,  or  segments :  four  in  the  head  generally,  three 
in  the  thorax,  and  ten  or  eleven  in  the  abdomen.  It  is 
interesting  to  glance  at  the  various  parts  of  insects,  and 
later  on,  in  reading  about  the  many  species,  to  note  the 
many  different  purposes  to  which  each  is  adapted. 

The  mouth  is  a  very  complicated  organ  in  the  crabs,  and 
equally  so  in  the  insects.  It  is  generally  separated  into 
four  distinct  parts :  the  upper  lip,  labrum,  the  jaws,  or 
mandibles,  a  second  pair  of  jaws  smaller  than  the  above, 
and  the  lower  lip  or  jaws,  labium.  These  are  formed  into 
sucking  organs  in  the  mosquito,  biting  organs  in  the  ant, 
and  tremendous  graspers  in  the  centipede,  all  displaying 

the  most  remarkable  variety. 

The    eyes    of    insects    are    wonderful 

organs,  being  both  simple  and  compound. 

In  the  grasshopper  (Fig.  155)  the  two  are 

easily  seen,   the   com- 
pound  eye   being   the 

larger.     The  fly  has  a 

remarkable  compound 

eye  (Fig.  156),  and  in 
the  center  of  the  two  eyes  are  three 
simple  ones.  The  compound  eye  in  the 
fly  is  made  up  of  vast  numbers  of 
six-sided  eyes  crowded  together,  appear- 
ing under  a  glass  like  a  honeycomb ;  yet  each  of  these 
facets  is  a  complete  eye.  In  a  sectional  view  of  the  eye 
of  a  beetle  (Fig.  157)  we  can  see  the  nerve  that  reaches 


FIG.  155.  — Head  of 
the  grasshopper. 


FIG.  156.  — Eyes  of  a 
fly. 


THE   INSECTS 


161 


III 


I'f 


every  one.      In   using  the  eyes  hundreds  of  images  of 
the   same  object   must 
reach  the  brain  of  the 
insect,    yet   the   image 
of  but  one  is  seen. 

Attached  to  the  head 
of  insects  are  various 
sense  organs,  feelers, 
or  antennae,  which  are 
very  ornamental,  as  in 
the  beetles.  The  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  skel- 
eton bears  the  wings. 
In  the  beetle  the  wing 
covers  are  formed  of 

hard     chitin.        When     F^W-Sec.iona.viewoftheeyeofabeetle. 

its  wings  are  not  in  use  this  insect  stores  them  away  in 
covers  provided  for  the  purpose. 

The  third  or  last  part  of  the  skeleton,  the  abdomen, 
often  bears  a  weapon  of  defense,  as  a  sting  or  a  drill  for 
boring  holes  in  trees,  or  machines  for  making  silk,  as  in 
the  spiders.  Here  also  we  find  a  remarkable  variety  of 
tails,  ranging  from  that  of  the  dragon  fly  to  the  long 
tail  of  the  scorpion  with  its  dangerous  sting  or  dagger. 

The  feet  of  insects  would  make  an  interesting  chapter 
alone,  ranging  from  the  curious,  sucking,  padded  foot  of 
the  fly  (Fig.  158)  to  the  claws  of  others.  The  anatomy 
of  insects  is  more  or  less  complicated.  The  method  of 
breathing  is  particularly  interesting.  It  is  very  natural  to 
imagine  all  animals  breathing  by  the  mouth  or  nostrils, 
but  insects  breathe  by  a  singular  system  of  air  tubes  (Fig 


HOL.  LO.  AN.  • 


II 


1 62 


THE   INSECTS 


I59)>  or  tracheae,  some  having  lungs  as  well.     The  air 

tubes  are  wound 
with  threads  up- 
on the  inside. 
This  preserves 
their  shape  and 
keeps  them 
open.  If  we  ex- 
amine a  grass- 
hopper (Fig. 
1 60),  we  shall 
see  along  the 
sides  openings, 
which  under  a 
powerful  micro- 
scope resemble 
eyelike  organs 

(Fig.    161).      These   are   air   holes,  win- 
dows, or  spiracles,  which  lead  to  the  air 
tubes,  and  by  minute  thread-lined  tubes 
reach  all  over  the  body.     To  obtain  air, 
or  to  breathe,  the  bee  keeps  its  abdomen 
continually  in  motion,  forcing  air  through  the  body,  carry- 
ing oxygen  to  the  blood 
tissues. 

The  insects,  with 
some  exceptions,  de- 
posit eggs,  and  the 
young  pass  through 
many  strange  changes, 

FIG.  160.  —  Grasshopper,  showing  spiracles,  s.       Or  metamorphoses,   be- 


FlG.  158.  —  Foot  of  a  fly. 


FIG.  159.— Breathing 

tubes  of  an  insect. 


THE   INSECTS 


163 


fore  the  full-grown  form  is  attained.     The  eggs  of  beetles 
hatch   into   larvae  (Fig.    162),  which    may   live  weeks    or 

months  or  even  years  in 
the  ground.  The  eggs 
of  other  insects,  as  moths, 
may  become  caterpillars, 
which  finally  spin  a  CO- 


FIG.  161.  —  Breathing  hole  or  spiracle, 
highly  magnified. 


FIG.  162.  —  Larvae  of  insects. 


coon,  as  in  the  case  of  the  silkworm,  and  from  this  cell- 
like  room  appears  the  perfect  moth.  These  changes,  so 
infinite  in  their  variety,  are  among  the  most  interesting 
features  of  insect  life,  and  are  never  failing  sources  of 
wonder  and  amazement  on  the  part  of  those  who  devote 
time  to  the  study. 


XIX.     LOWER   FORMS   OF   INSECTS 

IN  the  previous  chapter  we  have  by  the  aid  of  illustra- 
tions  glanced  at  the  structure  of  insects,  and  noted  some 
of  the  features  which  distinguished  them  from  the  crabs. 
Now  we  may  take  up  some  of  the  more  important  and 
interesting  groups  and  observe  how  Nature  has  adapted 
them  to  their  peculiar  surroundings,  and  for  the  various 
offices  they  fill  in  the  world. 

In  examining  the  various  families  of  insects  it  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  many  produce  certain  results  or 
accomplish  certain  ends  in  totally  different  ways.  The 
highly  organized  spider  by  drawing  silk  from  the  spinning 
machines  at  the  tip  of  its  abdomen  builds  a  web  so  strong 
that  it  sometimes  captures  birds.  I  recently  found  a 
living  humming  bird  hard  and  fast  in  a  web  at  the  corner 


FIG.  163.  — The  Peripatus. 

of  my  house,  and  released  it  just  in  time  to  save  it  from 
the  spider.  In  the  very  lowest  groups  of  insects  we  find 
the  Peripatus  (Fig.  163),  which  spins  a  weblike  structure 
from  glands  in  its  mouth,  ejecting  the  secretion  at  the 
insect  it  wishes  to  catch.  This  appears  to  crystallize  in 
the  air  and  hold  the  victim  despite  its  struggles.  The  Pe- 

164 


LOWER   FORMS   OF  INSECTS  165 

ripatus,  found  in  Africa  and  Central  America,  resembles  a 
large  caterpillar,  having  a  long,  soft,  cylindrical  body  with 
many  pairs  of  feet,  sometimes  sixty-six  ;  the  latter  are  soft 
and  armed  with  claws.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  posses- 


FlG.  164.— Amilliped. 

sion  of  many  legs,  but  is  outdone  in  this  respect  by  the 
millipeds,  as  some  (Fig.  164)  have  as  many  as  two  hun- 
dred. These  insects,  when  placed  upon  their  backs,  pre- 
sent an  extraordinary  appearance,  clawing  the  air ;  yet 
they  are  among  the  slowest  of  walkers.  They  live  in 
the  ground,  are  harmless,  feed  on  vegetable  matter,  and 
deposit  their  eggs  in  the  earth,  which  hatch  out  little  crea- 
tures at  first  resembling  crickets. 

The  centipeds,  on  the  other  hand  (Fig.  165),  are  animal 
feeders,  and  those  found  in  the  tropics  are  formidable 
creatures  from  six  to  ten  inches  in  length,  supplied  with 


FIG.  165.  — A  centiped. 

many  claws  and  terrible  fangs.  They  live  a  life  of  rapine 
and  destruction,  and  the  appearance  of  a  large  specimen 
almost  a  foot  in  length,  dashing  along  with  great  rapidity 
by  the  aid  of  its  fifteen  or  twenty  pairs  of  feet,  is  sufficient 


i66 


LOWER   FORMS   OF   INSECTS 


to  demoralize  the  stroller  through  the  dark  glades  of  the 
tropical  forests.  They  have  two  pairs  of  foot  jaws  (Fig. 
1 66)  which  grasp  an  enemy  with 
wonderful  tenacity.  The  second 
pair  is  perforated,  and  from  it  pours 
a  poison  dangerous  to  man  in  some 
tropical  species  and  fatal  to  small 
animals.  Several  of  these  hideous 
creatures  are  luminous  at  times. 
Many  centipeds  have  long  antennae. 

FIG.    166. -Under   sur-  J  & 

face  of  head  of  centiped,    The   eyes   are   very   small,    and   m 
showing  poison  fangs.  groups.      The  ordinary  centiped  of 

the    North    is   harmless,  despite  the  tales  related   of   its 
ferocity. 

Among  the  very  small,  though 
destructive  insects,  are  the 
mites,  found  in  cheese  and 
sugar;  they  are  parasitic  in 
cattle  and  various  other  ani- 
mals. In  California  certain 
forms  (Fig.  167)  cling  to  the 
bushes. 

In  remarkable  contrast  to  the  round-bodied  mites  are 

the  scorpions  (Fig. 
168),  in  which  the 
tail  is  sometimes 
two  inches  in 
length  and  armed 
with  a  sharp, 
daggerlike  sting, 
FIG.  168.- The  scorpion.  -  provided  with  a 


FIG.  167.  —  A  mite. 


LOWER   FORMS   OF   INSECTS  167 

poison  apparatus.  The  scorpions  of  the  largest  size  are 
often  found  in  the  tropics  in  the  same  locality  with  centi- 
peds,  under  board  piles  and  in  dark  places,  coming  out 
at  night  to  prey  upon  small  insects,  which  they  seize  with 
their  crablike  claws  and  tear  apart.  If  the  insect  struggles 
violently,  the  scorpion  raises  its  tail  over  its  back  and 
pierces  it  with  its  dagger,  paralyzing  it.  In  striking  at 
other  enemies  the  scorpion  whirls  about,  keeping  its  tail 
toward  them,  repeatedly  striking  down  and  using  its 
jointed  tail  with  marvelous  ingenuity.  A  few  years 
ago  these  scorpions  were  common  on  the  Florida  Reef 
and  were  frequently  killed  in  my  own  house  at  night. 
The  pain  resulting  from  the  sting  was  about  as  disagree- 
able as  that  occasioned  by  a  wasp.  These  scorpions  were 
about  three  inches  in  length,  but  in  Ceylon  very  much 
larger  ones  have  been  seen,  and  known  to  catch  birds. 
The  young  scorpions  are  born  alive  and  cling  to  the 
mother.  The  little  book  scorpion,  the  large  whip  scorpion, 
and  the  daddy  longlegs,  or  harvestman,  a  harmless  and 
sociable  insect,  are  related  to  the  true  scorpions. 


XX.     THE   SPIDERS 


FIG.  169.  —  Spinnerets  of  a 
spider. 


A  LITTLE  insect  half  as  large  as  a  grain  of  corn,  finds 
itself  on  a  limb  high  above  ground  and  is  desirous  of 
reaching  another,  five  feet  away.  It  is  not  a  jumper,  at 

least  it  could  not  hope  to  cover 
this  distance ;  neither  has  it  wings. 
But  it  has  a  marvelous  silk-manu- 
facturing apparatus,  known  as 
spinnerets  (Fig.  169),  and  elevat- 
ing its  abdomen  it  reels  off  a 
thread  which  the  wind  carries 
across  the  chasm  where  it  lodges. 
Across  the  single  cord  the  spider  runs,  the  act  being  sug- 
gestive of  the  intelligence  of  these  insects. 

The  common  garden  spider  (Fig.  170),  which  may  illus- 
trate the  group,  is  seen  to  differ  very  materially  from  the 
scorpion.      The    abdo- 
men  is   not    ringed    or 

made  up   of   segments,     |    |          |    |  |    J  j    \ 

but  is  large  and  plump, 
and  connected  with  the 
thorax  by  a  delicate 
cord  or  pedicel. 

The  spiders,  as  we 
have  seen,  have  a  spin- 
ning arrangement  by 


which  they  form  beauti- 


FIG.  170.  —  Garden  spider,  upper  and  lower 

surface. 


THE  SPIDERS 


I69 


ful  webs  or  nets  to  capture  prey.  By  this  silken  cord  they 
can  lower  themselves  from  great  heights. 
The  single  thread  which  supports  them 
is  made  up  of  a  number  of  minute 
threads  (Fig.  171).  The  webs  are 
formed  in  endless  variety  and  with  all 
the  skill  of  a  bridge  maker,  being 
guyed,  supported,  and  braced  in  a  man- 
ner which,  if  the  work  of  man,  would 
be  said  to  be  the  result  of  endless  study. 
They  are  perfect  in  their  arrangement, 
and  each  web  is  a  study  in  geometry, 
yet  the  spider  builds  it  with  the  greatest 
rapidity,  never  hesitating  in  the  making  or  repairing. 

By  my  door  is  a  huge  spider  similar  to  the  one  shown  in 
Figure  172.     It  has  a  beautiful  web  which  covers  a  space 


FIG.  171.  —  Structure 
of  a  spider's  web. 


FIG.  172.  —  Spider  and  its  web  or  trap. 


170 


THE   SPIDERS 


two  feet  square,  but  the  spider  rarely  occupies  it.  Near 
by  it  has  a  covering  formed  of  a  leaf  of  a  fern  which  it 
has  pulled  down  each  side  and  fastened,  forming  a  little 
room  just  the  size  of  its  body.  Wondering  how  the  spider 
would  discover  a  victim  caught  in  the  web,  I  examined  it 
carefully,  and  then  placed  a  grasshopper  in  the  web.  In- 
stantly the  spider  noted  the  disturbance,  having  what  to 
all  intents  and  purposes  was  a  private  telephone  line. 
This  was  a  single  guy  line  leading  from  the  center  of  the 
web  to  its  retreat,  where  one  of  the  spider's  claws  rested 

upon  it,  holding  it,  so  that 
the  slightest  swaying  of  the 
web  lifted  its  foot.  When 
an  insect  became  entangled, 
the  spider  darted  at  it,  and  by 
skillful  manipulation  of  its 
hind  pair  of  legs  reeled  off 
its  silken  cord  and  attached 
it  to  the  victim  at  every  point,  in  a  short  time  literally 
binding  it  in  a 
roll.  If  it  was 
likely  to  escape, 
the  spider  would 
bite  it,  using  its 
poison  fang  (Fig. 
173),  which  para- 
lyzed it.  The 
biting  mandibles 
(Fig.  174)  are 
terrible  weapons,  from  which  there  is  no  escape.  The 
inner  jaws  (Fig.  175)  are  equally .  sharp  and  effective. 


FIG.  173.  —  Highly  magnified  poison 
fang  of  spider. 


FlG.  174.  —  Biting  mandibles  of  a  spider. 


THE   SPIDERS  171 

The  eyes  of  the  spider  are  very  brilliant,  and  in  a  bright 
light  can  be  seen  to  gleam  and  glisten  like  points  of  steel 
or  fire.  They  are  minute 
dots,  seen  just  above  the 
mandibles. 

The  male  and  female 
spiders  often  present  a  very 
different  appearance,  the  F^ '75- -Jaws  of  a  spider. 

male  being  smaller.  The  spiders  deposit  eggs  which  are 
inclosed  in  silken  balls  or  nests  of  various  kinds,  in  which 
they  remain  until  the  young  are  hatched.  Some  are  con- 
cealed in  the  web ;  others  are  placed  underground  ;  and 
some  are  perched  upon  a  stalk  resembling  a  plant. 

There  appears  to  be  no  limit  to  the  uses  to  which  the 
marvelous  silk  of  spiders  is  put.  Some  spiders  form  bal- 
loons with  which  they  sail  away  through  the  air.  I  have 
seen  scores  of  these  aeronauts  in  the  air  at  one  time. 
Another  form  constructs  a  raft  of  leaves  bound  together 
with  silk.  Some  build  nets  for  small  game,  as  gnats. 
The  silken  cord  made  by  others  is  so  tough  that  it  can  be 
used  as  thread. 

By  partly  destroying  a  web  and  suspending  a  black 
cloth  behind  the  locality,  the  operations  of  the  spider  in 
building  and  repairing  can  be  plainly  seen.  It  is  well  to 
place  the  spinnerets  beneath  a  microscope,  under  which 
they  appear  to  be  made  up  of  many  points.  Touch  one  of 
these  and  a  glutinous  secretion  adheres,  which  when 
stretched  is  seen  to  be  silk,  and  each  point  provides  a  sepa- 
rate thread  which  joins  with  the  others,  producing  one  cable. 
The  spinnerets  are  to  some  extent  movable.  They  can  be 
turned  to  the  right  or  left,  and  wherever  they  touch,  the 


[?2  THE   SPIDERS 

silk  remains  glued  fast.  This  explains  why  the  spider 
moves  and  works  so  quickly  and  accomplishes  so  much. 
The  amount  of  silk  secreted  is  astonishing,  and  some  idea 
of  it  can  be  obtained  by  walking  over  the  country  in  spring, 
early  in  the  morning.  On  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Madre, 
in  the  San  Gabriel  Valley,  I  have  seen  the  surface  of  the 
ground  for  a  great  distance  covered  with  webs  which 
caught  the  rays  of  the  sun  as  it  rose,  presenting  a  most 
beautiful  appearance.  This  fabric  covered  hundreds  of 
acres  in  a  fairy  maze  of  web,  so  many  traps  for  unwary 
small  fry  of  the  insect  world.  With  a  small  stick  I  have 
wound  a  large  amount  of  silk  from  the  spinnerets  of  a 
spider,  there  apparently  being  no  diminution  of  the  supply. 
Professor  Burt  Wilder  wound  from  the  large  spider  known 
as  Nephila  plumipes  several  miles  of  silk.  Some  spiders 
have  long,  slender  legs  and  are  rapid  runners.  Others,  as 
Salticus,  are  very  deliberate,  but  powerful  leapers,  jumping 
upon  their  prey  like  a  cat.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable 
leaping  spider  is  one  from  Australia,  called  the  flying  Attus, 
having  singular  flaps  or  winglike  extensions  upon  its  sides. 
One  of  the  spiders  not  only  runs  over  the  surface  of  the 
water  readily,  but  spends  a  part  of  its  time  under  the 
surface,  carrying  down  a  bubble  of  air  for  its  supply  of 
oxygen,  the  bubble  acting  as  a  diving  bell. 

The  spiders  are  very  solicitous  of  their  young,  placing 
every  safeguard  about  them,  and  resenting  any  attack  by 
a  fierce  rush.  Several  large  spiders  (Fig.  176)  carry  their 
young  upon  their  backs.  The  little  spiders  are  rubbed  or 
scraped  off  when  they  become  too  great  a  burden.  The 
spiders  are  natural  hunters  and  trappers,  and  a  volume 
could  be  written  on  their  methods  and  adventures  in  run- 


THE   SPIDERS  173 

ning  down  prey.  Once  as  I  was  crawling  through  the 
almost  Stirling  brush  of  one  of  the  Florida  Keys  I  came  to 
a  little  opening  about  five  feet  wide,  across  which  was  a 
large,  conspicuous,  and  powerful  web.  In  the  center  of 
this  web  clung  a  huge  and  most  remarkable  spider,  colored 
a  vivid  yellow  and  black.  I  watched  it  for  a  few  moments 
while  resting,  and  then  touched  the  web,  whereupon  the 
spider  began  to  swing,  by  raising  and  depressing  its  body, 


FlG.  176.  —  Spider  with  young  upon  its  back. 

increasing  its  speed  rapidly,  until  I  could  with  difficulty 
see  it.  A  moment  later  it  disappeared  almost  entirely 
before  my  eyes.  For  half  a  minute  the  spider  kept  up 
this  motion,  then  it  slowly  came  to  a  standstill,  having 
demonstrated  that  it  could  easily  disappear  from  any  bird 
enemy  without  running  away.  I  have  seen  the  daddy 
longlegs  perform  the  same  feat  in  California. 

The  spiders  which  build  webs,  from  plain  geometrical 
traps  to  conelike  affairs,  are  interesting ;  but  the  trapdoor 
spiders  and  those  which  dig  burrows  are  among  the  won- 
derful artisans  and  engineers  of  the  insect  world.  One  of 


174  THE   SPIDERS 

the  most  perfect  doors,  in  hinge,   fit,  beauty  of   interior, 


finish,  and  quality  of 
its  outward  defense  is  built 
by  a  spider  (Fig.  177).  In 
the  illustration,  the  den  and  its 
trapdoor  is  shown,  and  in  Figure 
178  a  sectional  view  of  the  same 
is  seen ;  but  the  door  is  never 
found  open,  the  spring  or  hinge 
being  so  devised  as  to  remain 
closed.  I  have  found  many  of 
these  dens  in  southern  California 
sometimes  a  foot  or  more  in  length. 
The  spider  is  not  the  large  one 
shown  in  the  cut,  which  is  a  taran- 
tula, but  is  very  much  smaller, 
though  a  large  spider.  The  gen- 
^\  era,  Cteniza  and  Nemesia,  are  best 

FIG.  177.— Tarantulas  (My-    known  for  their  cunning  and  skill 

gale)    and    the   opening   of  a  . 

trapdoor  den  of  another  spider    as  builders.     The  California  spider 

begins   its   den  when  very  small, 

and  I  have  found  many  the  size  of  goose  quills,  with  door 
complete,  in  the  vicinity  of  a  large  de-n. 


THE   SPIDERS  175 

In  forming  the  burrow  the  spider  carries  out  the  clay  bit 
by  bit,  and  when  it  reaches  a  point  below  the  surface  it  be- 
gins to  line  the  sides  with  a  silken  tapestry.  The  door  is  an 
upper  extension  of  this  lining.  It  is  round,  about  the  size 
of  a  silver  quarter,  or  a  little  larger,  and  is  formed  of  silk 
so  woven  and  interwoven  that  it 
becomes  a  pad  of  seeming  satin, 
which  by  continued  manipulation 
is  made  to  fit  with  marvelous  per- 
fection. The  spring  or  hinge  is 
so  adjusted  that  the  door  always 
closes,  and  with  a  snap.  The  ex- 
terior of  the  door  is  covered  with 
clay,  and  is  made  to  simulate  the 
surroundings  so  exactly  that  only  FlG-  178. -Section  of  a  den 

J  J  of  trapdoor  spider. 

the  sharpest  eye,  and  one  skilled 

in  the  work,  can  distinguish  it.  In  some  of  the  European 
spiders  of  this  kind  the  door  is  carefully  covered  with 
moss  and  plants.  The  work  of  building  is  done  at  night. 
The  spiders  feed  at  night,  and  in  returning  to  the  burrow 
they  can  lift  the  lid  instantly,  dart  in,  and  turn  about 
to  seize  the  cushion  or  pad  of  the  door  with  their  fangs, 
and  hold  it  so  tightly  by  bracing  back  that  some  little 
strength  is  needed  to  force  it.  I  have  often  lifted  the 
door  with  the  blade  of  my  knife  and  seen  the  spider 
rush  up  and  seize  it.  In  all  the  doors  little  round  holes 
can  be  seen  where  the  mandibles  or  fangs  hold.  The 
spider  can  be  caught  by  pouring  water  into  the  burrow 
and  forcing  it  out.  In  the  island  of  Timos  there  is  a  trap- 
door spider  which  does  not  hunt,  but  combines  the  methods 
of  other  spiders.  It  comes  out  at  night,  fastens  back  its 


THE    SPIDERS 


door  by  a  thread,  then  builds  a  web  near  by  and  waits  for 
its  victims  to  become  entangled. 

The  largest  spiders  are  called  tarantulas,  though  the 
term  is  applied  to  some  forms  not  so  large.  They  are 
hideous  creatures,  and  are  very  common  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia. They  are  five  or  six  inches  across  the  legs,  and 
the  body  in  some  forms  is  as  large  as  a  small  mouse,  and 
is  covered  with  reddish  hair.  They  form  deep  burrows, 


FIG.  179.  — A  chimney-building 
spider. 


but  not  trapdoors,  the  entrance 
being  open  or  covered  by  a  web. 
They  are  supposed  to  be  very 
poisonous.  Mygale  Hentzii  is 
the  name  of  the  common  Ameri- 
can species  found  in  the  south- 
west (Fig.  177).  They  hunt  at 
night  for  grasshoppers,  crickets, 
and  other  small  game,  and  can 
often  be  seen  lumbering  along 
over  the  roads  at  sunrise,  return- 
ing from  a  hunt.  Sometimes 


THE   SPIDERS  177 

these  huge  spiders  migrate  in  a  body,  such  a  movement 
having  been  observed  in  southern  California. 

A  South  American  species  has  been  known  to  attack 
and  capture  small  birds,  though  this  may  be  considered 
rather  the  exception  than  the  rule,  their  food  consisting  of 
large  insects  and  small  lizards.  Of  all  the  spiders,  the 
Tarantula  turricula  (Fig.  179)  is  the  most  remarkable,  as 
it  not  only  makes  a  deep  burrow,  but  erects  above  it  a 
chimneylike  structure  with  all  the  skill  of  a  human  work- 
man. Indeed,  the  structure,  in  neatness  and  perfection  of 
design,  is  far  superior  to  many  of  the  chimneys  seen  among 
the  poorer  classes  of  some  countries.  The  spider  lays  the 
miniature  timbers  across  with  the  precision  and  exactness 
of  a  skilled  carpenter  and  after  the  manner  of  human  log- 
cabin  builders.  The  female  carries  her  young  upon  her 
back,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 


HOL.   LO.   AN. —  12 


XXL     SOME  SIX-LEGGED  INSECTS 


ONE  of  the  great  divisions  into  which  the  insects  are 
divided  relates  to  their  possession  of  six  legs  (Fig.  180). 
This  includes  a  marvelous  array  of  creatures.  Among 

them  we  find  the 
singular  little  gla- 
cier flea  (Fig.  181) 
and  the  springtail,  a 
prodigious  jumper 
(Fig.  182).  The  lat- 
ter is  found  in  damp 
places,  and  when 
touched  will  release 
a  forked  spring 
which  is  held  in 
place  by  a  hook, 
and  this  sends  the 
insect  flying  into  the 
air  like  an  acrobat. 
These  humble  little 

FIG.  180.— A  six-legged  insect. 

creatures   present   a 

strange   contrast    to    the    lace-winged   insects   which    are 
among  the  most  beautiful  of  the  tribe. 

The  May  flies  (Fig.  183)  are  well  known  for  the  won- 
derful exhibitions  they  sometimes  make,  the  air  being  filled 
with  them,  a  joyous,  beautiful  throng,  destined  to  live  but 
a  few  hours.  In  South  America  they  occur  in  such  vast 

178 


SOME   SIX-LEGGED   INSECTS 


1/9 


numbers  that  they  are  collected  and  used  as  guano.     The 
young  pass  through  a  strange  change,  having  little  resem- 


FlG.  181.  —Glacier  flea. 


blance  to  the  parent,  and  live  in  the  water,  where  they 
breathe  by  means  of  several  plumelike  gills. 


FIG.  182.  —  Springtail. 

Among  all  the  insects  of  the 
field  and  swamp  none  are  more 
familiar  than  the  dragon  fly  (Fig. 
184),  which  children  were  once 
led  to  believe  had  a  vicious  habit 
of  sewing  up  the  eyes  and  mouth 
of  any  one ;  hence  the  name 
"  darning  needle. "  These  insects 
are  often  beautiful,  with  their 
rich  wings  of  glistening  lace,  four 
in  number,  their  bodies  gleaming 

FlG.  183.  — Mayfly.  .      ..    ,        f  ,  ,  .  1111 

in  tints  of  bronze,  blue,  and  black. 

The  abdomen  is  long  and  slender,  like  a  needle ;  the  head 
is  prominent  and  armed  with  powerful  jaws ;    the  eyes 


ISO  SOME   SIX-LEGGED   INSECTS 

are  large  and  compound,  with  several  single  eyes  as  well. 
Some  dragon  flies  are  very  small.  Others  are  large,  as 
those  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  where  the  natives  trap 
them  and  use  them  for  food.  The  dragon  flies  are  hun- 


FlG.  184.— Dragon  fly. 

ters,  preying  upon  other  insects  which  they  capture  on 
the  wing,  and  large  forms  have  been  seen  taking  very 
young  fishes  from  the  water,  swooping  down  upon  them 

like  hawks. 

The  development  of  the 
dragon  fly  is  interesting  from 
the  fact  that  the  young  lives  a 
long  period  in  the  water.  The 
eggs  are  deposited  in  the  water, 
hatching  out  into  curiously 
FIG.  185.  -  Larvae  of  a  dragon  fly.  shaped  creatures  (Fig.  185), 


SOME   SIX-LEGGED   INSECTS 


181 


which  are  among  the  most  ferocious  of  all  the  water 
insects.  They  pass  two  years  in  this  form,  preying  upon 
other  animals  and  even  small  fishes.  The  larva  has  a 
proboscis  which  ordinarily  folds  over  the  face  and  is 
called  the  mask  (B),  but  when  an  insect  approaches,  this 
strange  appliance  with  powerful  jaws  or  hooks  is  shot  out 
(A)  with  dire  results.  After  the  two  years  have  passed 
the  pupa,  as  it  is  called,  climbs  up  a  stem,  leaves  the 
water  and  casts  its  skin,  appearing  as  a  full-grown  dragon 
fly  ready  for  a  life  of  rapine  on  land. 

In  many  insects  the  habits  of  the  young  are  much  more 
interesting  .than  those  of  the  adults.  Not  far  from  my 
home,  in  the  Arroyo 
Seco,  which  leads 
down  from  the  Sierra 
Madre,  are  great  de- 
posits or  beds  of  fine 
sand  which  I  find 
often  covered  with 
little  pits  (Fig.  186). 
If  a  section  is  made 
(Fig.  187),  it  is  found 
to  be  a  perfect  bowl  FlG'  l86-Ant  lion- adult  and  larva- 

almost  half  an  inch  in  depth,  as  though  a  top  had  been 

pressed  into  the  sand  and 
taken  out.  If  sand  is 
rolled  into  the  pit,  some- 
thing appears  quickly  at 
the  bottom  and  mysteri- 
ously tosses  it  out;  and 

FIG.  187.  —  Section  of  trap  of  an  ant  lion.        if  an  ant  topples  OVCr  the 


I&2  SOME   SIX-LEGGED    INSECTS 

edge  and  rolls  down  the  sides,  out  comes  a  fierce  pair  of 
jaws  and  seizes  it.  If  the  ant  escapes,  the  unknown  crea- 
ture, still  concealed,  hurls  sand  at  it,  endeavoring  to  bring 
it  down,  often  with  success.  This  singular  creature  is  the 

larva  or  imma- 
ture young  of  the 
ant  lion  —  itself 
an  attractive, 
large,  1  a  c  e- 
winged  creature 
(Fig.  1 88),  resem- 
bling a  dragon 

FlG.  188.  —  Perfect  form  of  ant  lion. 

fly.       It  lays  its 

eggs  in  dry  places.  The  young  are  wingless,  big-jawed 
creatures,  which  for  two  years  live  the  life  of  a  trapper, 
each  forming  a  pit  and  concealing  itself  beneath  the  sand 
at  the  bottom,  the  huge  jaws  being  in  the  center.  Ants 
are  the  game  of  this  lion,  and  as  they  run  along  they 
often  topple  over  the  sides  which,  like  those  of  a  toboggan, 
are  very  slippery.  Down  the  ant  goes,  its  descent  being 
accelerated  by  the  lion  which  places  sand  upon  its  back, 
and  bombards  the  unfortunate,  so  adding  to  its  confusion 
that  it  rolls  down  and  is  seized  by  the  jaws  of  the  lion. 
At  the  end  of  the  two  years  the  lion  surrounds  itself  with 
a  ball  of  sand  and  silk,  and  in  three  weeks  appears  as  the 
perfect  insect. 

Unless  one  is  familiar  with  the  eggs  of  the  aphis  lion 
(Fig.  189)  he  will  never  find  them.  They  resemble  minute 
plants  growing  on  long  stems,  fastened  to  a  leaf.  These 
hatch  out  and  become  little  creatures  resembling  the  ant 
'ion,  with  huge  jaws. 


SOME    SIX-LEGGED    INSECTS 


183 


FIG.  189.  —  Aphis  lion,  larva  and  eggs. 


But  the  most  extraordinary  changes  and  series  of  differ- 
ent individuals  are  found  among  the  so-called  white  ants, 
which  are  really  not  ants  at 
all,  but  among  the  most 
destructive  of  all.  known 
insects.  The  first  white 
travelers  in  Africa  reported 
the  discovery  of  gigantic 
ant  hills,  some  of  which 
were  twelve  feet  in  height 
(Fig.  190)  and  one  hun- 
dred feet  in  circumference. 
Equally  large  mounds  have 
been  found  in  Australia, 
large  areas  of  country  being 

dotted  with  these  striking  landmarks,  among  the  most 
remarkable  of  all  animal  structures.  These  mounds  are 
often  as  hard  as  rock,  and  hunters  have  sometimes  escaped 
from  the  charges  of  wild  animals  by  climbing  upon  them. 

They  are  the  work  of  the  so-called  white  ants.  A  sec- 
tion made  through  one  of  them,  as  seen  in  the  illustration, 
shows  the  singular  home  of  a  remarkable  community. 
There  are  really  four  kinds  of  "ants  "  here,  all  representing 
a  different  phase  in  the  growth  of  the  insect,  and  all  per- 
forming a  certain  work.  They  are  the  female,  the  male, 
the  worker,  and  the  soldier ;  and  there  is  a  winged  king. 
In  their  lives  these  insects  have  many  features  which 
resemble  those  of  man.  They  have  a  king  and  queen, 
which  at  first  have  wings ;  later  they  lose  their  wings  and 
the  queen  grows  until  she  is  thousands  of  times  larger 
than  the  workers,  and  is  kept  in  a  special  chamber  in  the 


1 84 


SOME   SIX-LEGGED    INSECTS 


center  of  the  pile.  Here  she  is  attended  by  the  workers, 
small  ants,  who  carry  out  the  eggs  which  are  laid  by 
millions  and  placed  in  nurseries  or  small  cemented  cells, 
designed  for  the  purpose.  Sometimes  the  queen  lays  as 


FIG.  190.  —  Hills  of  the  white  ant. 

many  as  eight  thousand  eggs  a  day.  An  army  of  workers 
carries  them  off,  builds  new  nurseries,  and  adds  to  the  heap. 
If  an  enemy  appears,  the  soldiers  rush  out.  These  have 
large  heads  and  enormous  jaws,  and  are  well  fitted  by 
nature  for  the  work  they  have  to  perform. 

The  cunning  and  intelligence  of  white  ants  are  well  dis.- 


SOME  SIX-LEGGED   INSECTS  185 

played  in  their  attacks  upon  houses.  Having  decided  to 
enter  a  house,  they  begin  to  tunnel  some  distance  away, 
and  finally  reach  the  corner  post  or  some  timber  that 
enters  the  ground.  With  remarkable  speed  the  workers 
enter  this,  hollowing  it  out,  until  it  is  nothing  but  a  shell. 
They  eat  to  the  very  surface,  leaving  only  a  faint  ghost  of 
a  partition,  and  what  appears  to  be  a  solid  block  is  really 
so  thin  that  a  finger  can  be  thrust  through  it.  So  clever 
are  these  little  ant  miners  that  they  have  been  known  to 
come  up  through  the  floor  directly  beneath  the  leg  of  a 
chair,  and  burrow  and  eat  up  through  it,  so  completely 
devastating  it  that  when  the  owner  moved  it  the  small  hole 
in  the  floor  appeared  and  the  chair  fell  in  pieces. 

In  the  Isle  of  France  a  new  building  was  ruined  by 
these  insects  in  a  few  months;  and  at  Colombo  a  large 
house  suddenly  fell  in  over  the  heads  of  the  occupants, 
the  beams  being  crushed  like  egg  shells.  The  work  they 
accomplished  in  this  way  would  hardly  be  credited  were  it 
not  for  the  substantiated  statements  collected  by  the 
authorities  in  the  countries  where  they  are  mostly  found. 

The  so-called  caddis  worms 
(Fig.  191)  are  merely  the  larvae 
of  the  caddis  fly  which  incloses 
itself  in  a  case  that  is  often  deco- 
rated in  a  singular  way.  The 
cases  of  a  number  of  the  worms  FlG-  191-  — Caddis  worm  and 
placed  together  display  a  striking 

variety  of  designs.  Some  roll  up  leaves ;  others  spin  a 
silken  thread  from  the  mouth  and  bind  pieces  of  leaves 
together,  attaching  other  pieces  to  it. 


XXII.     SOME   MIMICS 

ALL  insects  have  a  continual  struggle  for  life.  They 
constitute  the  food  of  many  birds,  and  very  few  of  the 
young  escape  these  watchful  creatures  and  attain  mature 
life. 

To  enable  the  insects  to  escape,  nature  has  given  many 
a  strange  protective  garb,  which  is  called  mimicry  or  a 
protective  resemblance.  Sometimes  it  is  color,  an  insect 
mimicking  a  leaf  in  color ;  or  again,  the  insect  imitates  a 
twig  or  leaf  in  shape,  and  so  escapes  attention.  We  find 
examples  of  this  in  many  families,  but  particularly  among 
the  insects  now  under  consideration.  The  mantis  (Fig. 
192)  belongs  to  a  group  in  which  the  insects  resemble 
twigs  in  shape  and  color,  and  nothing  could  be  more 
striking  than  these  strange,  slow-moving  creatures.  They 
have  an  uncanny,  weird  appearance,  and  look  as  though 
they  might  have  been  originally  of  wood.  I  have  seen 
them  in  the  tropics  passing  slowly  along  a  limb,  lifting 
one  leg  at  a  time,  moving  it  with  all  the  halting  deliberation 
of  an  automaton ;  but  when  the  mantis  perceived  me,  it 
stopped  just  as  it  was,  the  foot  that  was  in  the  air 
remaining  as  though  it  had  been  frozen  in  the  act.  Some 
are  a  vivid  green,  and  in  them  the  resemblance  to  twigs  is 
very  striking.  I  once  encouraged  a  number  to  live  in 
my  preserves,  where  I  watched  and  studied  and  often 
fed  them.  They  would  take  a  fly  from  my  hand  by 
a  very  rapid  movement  of  the  cruel,  fore  hands  or  claws, 

186 


SOME   MIMICS 


I87 


which  were  toothed.  When  food  was  scarce  the  insects 
would  devour  one  another  in  the  most  deliberate  fashion, 
then  assume  the  quaint,  supplicating  position  with  claws 
up,  from  which  the  insect  is  called  the  praying  mantis. 
My  specimens  deposited  their  eggs  in  a  curious  case  about 


FIG.  192.  —  The  mantis. 

an  inch  long,  resembling  a  trilobite,  which  they  attached 
to  the  fence  and  colored  the  exact  hue  of  the  latter.  The 
fence  was  not  painted,  and  varied  in  color,  yet  the  nests 
always  agreed  more  or  less  exactly  with  the  shade  or  tint 
of  the  plank  or  base  to  which  it  was  attached. 


i88 


SOME   MIMICS 


In  South  America  is  found  a  huge  mantis  so  powerful 
that  it  captures  birds  by  grasping  them  in  its  terrible 
claws.  The  insect  is  described  by  Burmeister  as  crouch- 
ing on  the  limb,  imitating  it  so  closely  that  the  bird  ap- 
proaches it  without  fear.  In  Java  a  beautiful  pink  mantis 
is  so  perfect  in  its  mimicry  of  a  pink  orchid  that  insects 
alight  upon  it  and  are  caught.  A  Philippine  Island  man- 
tis is  remarkable  for  its  resemblance  to  a  dried  and  with- 
ered leaf. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  this  insect  is  its  cool,  deliber- 
ate ferocity  —  devouring  its  mate  with  indifference,  lunch- 
ing calmly  upon  its  young,  while  they  are  dining  among 
themselves.  When  fighting  they  have  the  characteristics 
of  the  bulldog,  with  many  times  its  endurance.  A  mantis 

will  continue  a  combat  even 
when  part  of  its  body  is  cut 
away.  I  have  seen  one  de- 
prived of  all  its  legs  cling  to 
a  limb  with  one  claw  and 
continue  to  reach  for  its  foe 
with  the  other. 

Closely  allied  to  the  mantis, 
and  even  more  remarkable 
as  mimics,  are  the  walking 
sticks  (Phasma)  (Fig.  193). 
I  have  kept  them  alive,  and 
often  have  been  unable  to  see 
them  when  I  knew  they  were 
directly  beneath  my  eyes,  so 
They  have  no  biting  claws, 


FIG.  193.  — Walking  stick. 

remarkable  is  the  mimicry. 


merely  long  antennae,  a  long,  sticklike  body,  and  straight- 


SOME   MIMICS  189 

jointed,  sticklike  legs.  Some  are  green.  The  most  re- 
markable are  those  which  seem  to  imitate  dead  wood.  I 
have  seen  a  walking  stick  that  was  a  perfect  imitation  of  a 
moss  or  lichen-covered  twig,  the  body  and  legs  of  the  in- 
sect being  covered  with  peculiar  growths.  The  largest 
walking  stick  I  have  seen  was  twelve  inches  in  length,  and 
one  of  the  most  perfect  imitations  of  a  green  twig  that 
could  be  imagined.  This  was  from  the  Malay  country, 
where  they  grow  to  a  length  of  fourteen  inches.  They 
stretch  out  upon  long"  tendrils,  extending  the  limbs  or  hold- 
ing them  up,  the  poseurs  of  the  insect  world. 

The  walking  leaves  (Phyllium)  {Fig.  194)  are  clever 
mimics,  resembling  leaves.  Even  the  veins  and  midrib 
of  the  leaf  are  imitated,  and  the  insect,  when 
crouching  on  a  limb,  is  a  virtual  leaf,  so  far 
as  appearance  goes,  the  disguise  being  abso- 
lutely perfect.  Some  resemble  green  leaves; 
others  dried  and  withered  specimens.  Even 
the  legs  of  these  insects  are  supplied  with 
a  singular  growth.  Most  of  these  strange 
mimics  are  found  clinging  to  trees  ;  but  one 
common  in  Brazil  spends  most  of  the  time 
during  the  day  under  water  in  streams, 
where  it  clings  to  the  pebbles.  In  Nicara- 
gua there  are  several  species  that  resemble 
leaves  in  all  stages  of  decay.  The  move- 
ments of  some  of  these  insects  resemble  those  of  leaves. 
I  saw  one  in  the  Sierra  Madre  range  come  down  from  a 
tall  sycamore,  and  supposed  it  a  leaf,  as  it  dropped  slowly, 
zigzagging  down.  I  should  not  have  discovered  the  mis- 
take had  not  my  dog  recognized  it. 


XXIII.     THE   GRASSHOPPERS   AND    LOCUSTS 


THESE  forms  may  be  considered  the  musicians  of  the 
insect  world.  None  of  the  insects  can  produce  vocal 
sounds,  that  is,  they  have  no  voice, 
but  they  have  certain  appliances 
which  enable  them  to  produce  sounds 
which  can  be  heard  a  long  distance. 

FIG.  195.  —  A  grasshopper.      .—       ,         _,  ,  ,     , 

constant  and  shrill  zee-zeeing  of  the  locust,  while  countless 
varieties  lend  their  aid  in  producing  a  volume  of  sound. 

The  "instruments"  in  the  locust  are  (Fig.  196)  minute 
teeth,  arranged  along  the  thighs ;  these  are  rubbed  against 
the  fore  wings,  producing  the  remarkable  sounds.  The 
locusts  are  commonly  called  grasshoppers.  They  have 
two  pairs  of  net-veined  wings,  and  hind  legs  adapted  for 
leaping,  by  which 
they  send  them- 
selves sprawling 
through  the  air, 
almost  invariably 
using  this  method 
of  escape  instead  of  unfolding  their  delicate  wings.  All 
are  mimics.  The  common  ground  locust  resembles  the 
dusty  road  and  the  dried  foliage  which  it  affects.  Others, 
which  live  on  plants,  are  a  vivid  green.  Some  which  I 
find  in  my  garden  resemble  closely  the  tender  shoots  of 
the  passion  vine,  upon  which  they  "feed. 

190 


FIG.  196.  —  Musical  instruments  of  the  locust :  a,  leg ; 
b,  c,  teeth,  enlarged. 


THE  GRASSHOPPERS  AND  LOCUSTS      191 

The  locusts  ( Acridiidae)  have  short  antennae,  large  glassy 
eyes,  and  ears  at  the  base  of  the  abdomen.  The  female  is 
provided  with  an  appliance  called  the  ovipositor,  four  sharp 
points  with  which  the  grasshopper  digs  holes  in  the  ground  ; 
later  these  are  used  as 
a  guide  or  funnel  for 
introducing  the  eggs 
into  the  burrow.  The 
mouth  is  supplied  with 
parts  adapted  to  biting. 
When  a  grasshopper 
(Fig.  195)  is  caught  it 
exudes  a  peculiar  fluid 
resembling  molasses,  a 
secretion  of  the  sali- 
vary glands.  The  eggs 

are  deposited  in  masses    FIG.  197.  —  A  grasshopper  and  young  at  different 

from  sixty  to  one  hun-  stages:  A' larva:  *• pupa;  C'  adult" 
dred.  The  young  resemble  the  parent,  but  at  first  have  no 
wings.  The  grasshopper  in  making  its  metamorphosis,  or 
change  from  one  stage  to  another,  casts  its  skin  in  a  man- 
ner calling  to  mind  the  crabs ;  in  a  word,  it  molts  several 
times  (Fig.  197).  In  accomplishing  this,  it  often  climbs  a 
spear  of  grass  and  there  shuffles  out  of  its  old  skin  and 
jumps  away,  leaving  the  hollow  skin  clinging  to  the  grass. 
At  times  they  appear  in  vast  numbers,  and  in  clouds 
rise  into  the  air,  so  that  fjom  a  distance  they  might  be 
taken  for  smoke  or  a  tornado.  This  cloud  is  made  up 
of  starving  locusts  which  devastate  the  countries  they 
infest.  They  alight  upon  a  wheat  field,  and  an  hour  later 
hundreds  of  acres  appear  as  though  a  fire  had  swept  over 


192  THE  GRASSHOPPERS   AND  LOCUSTS 

the  ground.  Every  spear  of  grass,  every  leaf,  has  been 
devoured  by  this  insatiate  throng,  which  can  not  be  de- 
stroyed or  even  checked.  In  Africa  swarms  have  been 
swept  by  the  wind  out  over  the  ocean,  to  be  washed  in 
in  such  vast  numbers  that  they  formed  a  line  fifty  miles 
long  and  three  or  four  feet  high  alongshore,  creating 
an  odor  which  drove  people  from  that  region.  Jaegar, 
the  naturalist,  rode  through  a  swarm  in  Russia  for  four 
hundred  miles  where  they  were  two  feet  deep.  The  entire 
country  was  devastated  by  this  band  of  locusts,  and  tens  of 
thousands  of  human  beings  were  threatened  with  starva- 
tion. The  government  troops  were  ordered  to  the  place 
and  warfare  declared  against  the  locusts,  the  soldiers  being 
armed  with  shovels  instead  of  guns.  A  line  of  thirty 
thousand  men  moved  slowly  forward,  covering  the  insects 
with  earth  or  digging  them  under,  while  in  various  locali- 
ties huge  fires  were  built  to  burn  the  ground  and  destroy 
the  eggs.  Despite  this,  thirty  thousand  people  starved  to 
death,  the  direct  result  of  their  raids.  Almost  every  por- 
tion of  the  world  away  from  the  poles  has  been  threatened 
by  these  raiders.  There  are  many  references  in  the  Bible 
to  these  insects,  and  their  ravages  have  been  carried  on  from 
the  earliest  times  known  to  man.  In  America  the  Rocky 
Mountain  locust  is  the  most  destructive,  and  many  of  the 
Western  states  have  been  ravaged  by  them. 

"  Onward  they  came,  a  dark,  continuous  cloud  of  congregated  myriads, 

numberless. 
The  rushing  of  whose  wings  was  as  the  sound  of  a  broad  river,  headlong 

in  its  course. 
Plunged  from  a  mountain  summit,  or  the  roar  of  a  wild  ocean,  as  the 

autumn  storm, 
Shattering  its  billows  on  a  shore  of  rocks."   -  —  SOUTHEY. 


THE   GRASSHOPPERS   AND   LOCUSTS 


193 


Some  years  ago  a  flock  settled  in  Colorado  Springs,  the 
streets  and  roofs  being  covered  with  them,  so  that  they 
were  swept  and  shoveled  about  like  snow.  Some  Ameri- 
can swarms  have  been  traced  for  several  hundred  miles, 
and  settling  on  railroads,  have  stopped  the  trains  by  mak- 
ing the  tracks  slippery.  Alighting  in  a  cornfield  the 
rustling  sound  of  their  depredation  can  be  heard  for  some 
distance  ;  and  when  they  rise,  a  fire  might  have  swept  over 
the  fields,  so  far  as  appearances  go.  The  swarm,  a  black, 
portentous  cloud,  sweeps  on,  flying  at  a  rate  of  thirty 
miles  an  hour  to  reach  some  new  field,  where  they  dig  bur- 
rows with  their  curious  ovipositors,  and  deposit  their  eggs 
by  millions.  Then  they  move  on,  leaving  an  unborn  swarm 
to  develop  and  later  constitute  another  army  to  spread 
devastation  abroad 
in  the  land. 

The  crickets  (Fig. 
198)  are  familiar 
forms  with  cylindri- 
cal bodies  and  large 
heads  placed  verti- 
cally, the  ovipositor 
often  being  as  large 
as  the  entire  body. 
The  female  often  de- 
posits three  hundred 
eggs  in  the  ground. 
The  note  of  the  cricket  is  produced  by  the  male,  and  is  a 
decidedly  musical  chirp,  varying  in  the  different  kinds. 
The  close  observer  may  easily  find  the  cave  house  of 
the  little  singer  that  is  often  seen  sitting  at  the  entrance, 

HOL.   LO.   AN.  —  13 


FIG.  198.  —  Crickets. 


194  THE  GRASSHOPPERS   AND   LOCUSTS 

singing,  not  at  the  top  of  its  voice,  but  with  the  full 
force  of  its  wings,  the  sound  being  produced  by  using  the 
fore  wings,  as  bows  and  the  hind  wings  as  riddles,  and 
sawing  with  great  rapidity. 

The  crickets  are  found  in  the  greatest  variety.  Some 
live  in  the  ground,  others  affect  houses,  and  in  the  tropics 
beautiful  tree  crickets  are  found.  The  snowy  tree  cricket 
has  a  peculiar  note,  te-reat,  te-reat,  te-reat.  The  broad- 
winged  tree  cricket  has  a  call  which  resembles  a  dog 
whistle.  Another  has  a  piping  note  resembling  the  thrill- 
ing musical  sound  made  by  rubbing  the  edge  of  a  glass 
with  one's  finger.  The  singular  cave  cricket  is  wingless, 
and  has  antennae  several  times  the  length  of  its  body.  The 
Western  cricket  does  great  damage  to  the  crops  of  the 
farmer,  and  when  bands  are  seen  marching  over  the  coun- 
try, ditches  are  often  dug  into  which  the  crickets  plunge, 
where,  in  default  of  food,  they  begin  to  devour  one  another. 
The  cry  of  this  cricket  is  harsh  and  disagreeable,  the  "  musi- 
cal instrument "  being  on  the  dorsum  or  back  of  the  shield 
which  seems  to  cover  the  fore  part  of  its  back.  The  curi- 
ous mole  cricket,  which  burrows  underground  and  is  pro- 
vided with  enormous  jaws,  is  a  menace  to  the  gardener. 
In  the  outer  Florida  Keys  I  found  that  it  was  almost  im- 
possible to  rear  plants,  so  plentiful  and  ravenous  were  these 
fierce  root  eaters. 


XXIV.     THE   BEETLES 


THE  beetles  (Fig.  199)  are  insects  having  their  fore 
wings  thickened  to  constitute  sheaths  or  covers  for  the 
lower  pair,  used  in  flight.  Their  mouths  are  adapted 

for  biting,  and  they 
pass  through  a  com- 
plete metamorphosis. 
There  are  about 
ninety  thousand  spe- 
cies, ranging  from 
minute  creatures  to 
huge,  lumbering  goli- 
aths.  When  walking 
the  beetle  presents 
a  trim  appearance, 
enveloped  in  a  gleam- 
ing armor  of  the  highest  polish,  and  often  ablaze  with 
metallic  tints,  but  when  it  flies  the  elytra,  or  wing  covers, 
are  thrown  up,  and  a  pair  of  soft,  silken  wings  flutter  out, 
stiffen,  and  bear  the  beetle  away. 

The  head  of  the  beetle  is  small  and 
adapted  for  biting  (Fig.  200);  the  diges- 
tive apparatus  is  simple.  The  most 
noticeable  feature  of  many  are  the 
antennae  (Fig.  201),  which  often  are  very 
long  and  ornamental.  The  eyes  are 
compound.  The  legs  are  strong  and  powerful.  The  beetles 

195 


FIG.  199.  —  A  typical  beetle  ( Cotalpa) :  A,  imago 
B,  larva. 


FlG.  200.  —  Head  of 
a  beetle. 


196 


THE   BEETLES 


FIG.  201. — Antennae  of  beetles. 


spend   little  time  in  flying,  many  being  flesh  eaters  and 

continually  searching  for  game  under  refuse  and  in  dark 

places.  They  lay  eggs  which 
are  deposited  in  the  ground, 
or  in  special  cavities  made 
in  wood,  which  hatch  into 
larvae  (Fig.  202).  In  the 
tiger  beetle  the  larvae  resem- 
ble white  worms.  In  the 
rose  beetle  they  look  like 
grubs.  These  in  time  change 
to  helpless  pupae. 

The  June  bug,  the  beetle 

which    dashes   into  rooms,  blindly  charging  lights  of  all 

kinds,  is  a  familiar 

example.     Its   larva 

is    white    and    very 

destructive.     On  my 

lawn    in    California 

the   Bermuda   grass 

often    turns    white, 

and  sections  a  foot 

square  can  be  lifted, 

having  been  cut  off 

from   the   roots    by 

this  destructive  larva 

of    the    June    bug, 

which     during    this 


FlG.  202.  —  Beetle   and    young:    A,  tiger   beetle; 
B,  larva  of  same,  enlarged;   C,  water  beetle. 


stage  of  its  existence 

lives   underground,    eating   roots    and    plants   of   various 

kinds.     For  two  years  this  beetle  (Fig.  203)  lives  a  sub- 


THE   BEETLES 


197 


FIG.  203.  —  June  bug,  showing 
wings  and  wing  covers. 


terranean,  marauding  life,  growing  and  shedding  its  skin. 
It  is  often  considered  a  complete  animal,  but  at  the  end 
of  this  period  it  changes  into 
what  is  called  the  pupa  stage, 
which  does  not  move ;  the  pupae 
are  white,  soft,  helpless  crea- 
tures which  are  found  around 
the  roots  of  rose  bushes  in  great 
number,  and  which  are  so  appre- 
ciated by  mocking  birds  that 
they  and  the  blackbirds  invaria- 
bly follow  me  about  the  garden  when  I  am  overturning  the 
soil  with  the  trowel.  Finally  the  pupa  changes  into  the 
perfect  insect. 

The  larvae  of  some  of  the  spring  beetles  remain  in  the 
"  grub  "  stage  five  years,  and  are  known  as  wire  worms, 

doing    a   vast    amount    of 
damage. 

The  girdler  beetle  bores 
holes  in  tender  limbs  of 
the  hickory,  then  system- 
atically girdles  the  limb 
below  the  eggs,  so  that  by 
the  time  the  young  hatch 
they  have  soft,  dead  wood 
to  feed  upon.  The  bark 
borer  (Fig.  204)  penetrates 

FIG.  204.  —  Bark-boring  beetle.  , ,       ,       ,        r  , 

the  bark  of  trees,  and  cuts 

winding  tunnels  here  and  there,  in  which  are  placed  its 
eggs.  Among  the  most  attractive  of  the  beetles  are  the 
carnivorous  sexton  beetles.  They  find  dead  bodies  with 


198 


THE   BEETLES 


all  the  skill  of  a  vulture,  burrow  beneath  them  and  deposit 
their  eggs  within  the  body,  where  the  young  feed.     The 

work  these  beetles 
accomplish  in  destroy- 
ing animals  and  even 
burying  them  renders 
them  valuable  scaven- 
gers. Among  the  de- 
FIG.  205.— Buffalo  bug  and  various  stages  of  structive  beetles  are  the 

buffalo  bugs  (Fig.  205), 

which  have  been  introduced  from  Europe;   the  larva  of 
these  is  a  strange,  fuzzy  little  creature  (a). 

The  weevils  (Fig.  206)  are  the  bane  of  the  dweller  in 
the  tropics.  They  infest  bread,  cake,  and  flour  and  meal 
of  every  kind.  Perhaps  the  most  dreaded 
by  the  Northern  farmer  is  the  potato  bug 
(Fig.  207),  which  plays  havoc  with  potatoes, 
often  ruining  the  entire  crop,  the  vines  being 
covered  by  the  soft  and 
disagreeable  larva,  more 
like  a  worm  than  anything 
else.  The  diving  beetle  is 
an  interesting  insect,  being 
a  flier  and  a  swimmer.  Its 
hind  legs  are  fringed  and  adapted  for 
swimming.  On  the  fore  limb  is  a  sucker, 
or  several,  by  which  the  beetle  can  attach 
itself  to  any  object.  The  larva  is  a  fero- 
cious creature,  armed  with  a  pair  of  fierce  jaws,  with  which 
it  attacks  small  fishes,  frogs,  tadpoles,  and  game  very 
much  larger  than  itself. 


FIG.  206.  —  The 
weevil. 


FIG.  207.  —  Potato  bug, 
eggs  and  young. 


XXV.     THE   BUGS 


THE  bugs  are  easily  recognized.     They  have  the  mouth 
parts  arranged  as  a  sucking  beak  or  proboscis.    The  chinch 


FIG.  208.  —  Chinch  bug,  egg  and  various  stages  of  the  young. 

bug  (Fig.  208),  the  squash  bug  (Fig.  209),  the  seventeen- 
year  cicada,  or  locust  (Fig.  210),  and  the  bean  aphis  (Fig. 
21 1)  are  well-known  examples. 
They  represent  a  group  dreaded 
for  many  reasons ;  many  are 
parasites  on  man  and  beast,  while 
many  others  destroy  crops  of 
various  kinds. 

In  nearly  all  fresh- water  ponds 
and  pools  curious  flat,  long- 
legged  creatures  (Fig.  212)  are  seen  darting  over  the  sur- 
face, being  perfectly  at  home.  They  are  water  boatmen, 
and  one  species  (Fig.  213)  is  found  far  out  at  sea. 

199 


FIG.  209.  —  Squash  bug. 


2OO 


THE   BUGS 


In  passing   in  review  the  various  insects  the   peculiar 

transformations 
through  which 
they  pass  are 
noticed;  some 
long,  some  short, 
some  partial,  and 
many  complete. 

FIG.  210.  — Cicada.  r        . 

In  the  cicada,  or 
seventeen-year  locust,  or  harvest  fly,  we  have  an  instance 


FIG.  an.— Bean  aphis. 

of  one  of  the  strangest  examples  of  slow  development 
known.  The 
cicada  is  a 
wedge-shaped 
insect  having 
some  resem- 
blance to  a 
huge  fly.  At 
the  base  of  the 
abdomen  is  a 
drumlike  organ 
by  which  it 
makes  a  shrill 
"zeeing"  sound 


FIG.  212.  —  Water  boatmen . 


THE   BUGS 


2OI 


which,  when  thousands  are  joined  in  concert,  produces 
a  remarkable  sound  audible  for  a  long 
distance.  I  have  heard  it  half  a  mile 
with  the  wind,  and  by  following  it  up 
found  a  grove  filled  with  insects  pro- 
ducing a  roar  of  sounds,  while,  clinging 
to  the  trees  and  branches,  were  thou- 
sands of  empty  skins  from  which  the 
cicadas  had  escaped.  The  cicada  de- 
posits three  or  four  hundred  eggs  in 
holes  on  the  twigs  or  bark  of  the  oak. 
They  hatch  very  promptly  in  six  weeks  FIG.  213.  —  Haiobates,  a 

bug  that  goes  to  sea. 

or  so,  and  we 

might  conclude  that  the  young 
cicadas  would  soon  appear.  But 
seventeen  long  years  of  life  under- 
ground are  now  required  before 
the  pupa  crawls  upward,  molts,  and 
appears  as  an  adult  cicada.  It  has 
spent  all  these  years  as  an  almost 
helpless  creature,  resembling  the 
mole  cricket,  subsisting  by  sucking 
the  juices  from  the  roots  of  plants, 
waiting  for  the  ending  of  its  im- 
prisonment. 

On  many  plants  the  stroller 
through  the  garden  will  observe 
bits  of  white  froth,  like  soap  suds, 
and  few  persons,  were  they  not  in 
the  secret,  would  believe  that  the  froth  is  an  especially 
devised  medium  for  the  little  leaf  hopper  (Fig.  214).  The 


FIG.  214.  —  Young  leaf  hopper 
and  its  bubbles. 


202 


THE  BUGS 


adult  insect  is  a  curious  little  creature  found  among  the 
grasses  in  spring.  The  young  require  moisture  to  enable 
them  to  attain  their  full  development,  and  when  hatched 
they  climb  up  stalks  of  grass  and  pierce  them  with  their 
beaklike  proboscis  and  gorge  themselves  with  the  juices. 

The  insect  now  exudes 
a  foamy  secretion 
which  bubbles  up 
about  it,  in  time  en- 
tirely surrounding  it- 
self in  a  mass  of 
moisture.  The  insect 
converts  this  into  air 
globules  by  pushing 
its  tail  above  the  mass 
(a)  and  seizing  air  in 
its  claspers,  which  it 
passes  beneath  it  to 
the  spiracle  or  breath- 
ing pore.  In  this  way 
it  breathes  and  also  fills  the  section  about  it  with  air. 
There  the  animal  passes  the  time  until  it  is  ready  to  change, 
when  it  escapes  and  becomes  a  perfect  leaf  hopper.  The 
famous  cochineal  insects  (Fig.  2 15)  belong  to  this  group. 
They  are  minute  creatures  which  live  upon  certain  cacti 
in  the  tropics.  When  collected  they  form  the  celebrated 
dye.  Another  form  produces  a  valuable  wax. 

Who  has  not  found  his  rose  bushes  swarming  with 
minute  green  bodies,  the  Aphidae  ?  Brush  them  off  at 
night  and  in  a  few  hours  as  many  more  are  seen,  due  to 
the  marvelous  rapidity  of  their  increase.  The  eggs  are 


FlG.  215.  —  Cochineal  insect. 


THE   BUGS  203 

laid  in  the    autumn,  and  hatch  in  the  early  spring,  the 
young  then  appearing  as  wingless  little  creatures  which 
in  turn  produce  not  eggs  but  winged  or  wingless  Aphidae 
(Fig.  216).     These  appear  in  such  num- 
bers  and    so   quickly    that   in    a   single 
summer  a  pair  of  plant  lice  will  produce 

one  quintillion  of  young  ones.     Can  we      ,, 

FIG.  216.— Aphis. 

wonder  that  it  is  difficult  to  keep  the  rose 
bushes  free  from  such  a  swarm  ?     The  story  of  the  develop- 
ment of  these  insects  is  but  merely  touched  upon,  but  it 
is  among   the  most   remarkable   of    all   the    strange  and 
unexplainable  transformations  we  find  in  animal  life. 

Here  we  may  glance  at  the  countless  scaly  insects 
which  infest  fruit  of  various  kinds.  The  black,  red,  and 
cottony  scale  are  common  in  California,  and  have  to  be 
fought  with  all  the  cunning  and  intelligence  that  man  can 
invoke.  In  1886  the  orange  groves  of  southern  Califor- 
nia were  almost  ruined  by  the  cottony  scale.  I  have  seen 
trees  that  looked  as  though  the  limbs  were  covered  with 
snow.  But  an  enemy  of  the  scale,  a  little  spotted  lady 
bug,  was  imported  from  Australia,  and  in  a  few  months 
the  scale  had  disappeared.  The  black  and  red  scale  and 
several  others  are  pests  which  devastate  the  groves, 
stopping  the  growth  of  the  trees  and  operating  against 
the  fruit  grower,  who  is  obliged  to  spray  the  trees  with 
poisonous  washes  to  destroy  them. 


XXVI.     FLIES   AND    MOSQUITOES 

THE  flies  and  mosquitoes  are  among  the  greatest  pests 
and  dangers  to  man.     Both  are  conveyers  of  disease,  and 


FlG.  217.  —  A  fly,  natural  size  and  magnified. 
204 


FLIES   AND   MOSQUITOES 


205 


the  former,  as  an 
agent  of  destruction, 
deposits  its  eggs  in 
meat  of  all  kinds, 
making  it  impossible 
to  keep  meat  in  some 
countries.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  should 
be  remembered  that 
the  flies  are  valuable 
scavengers,  hasten- 
ing the  destruction 
of  dead  matter  which 
might  contaminate 
the  air. 

The  flies  (Fig.  2 1 7) 
are    two- winged    in-  FIG.  218. -Tongue  of  a  fly. 

sects  with  mouth  parts  adapted  for  lapping  (Fig.  218)  or 
sucking.     Under  the  microscope  these  organs  often  appear 
^  to  be   composed   of   needlelike  bristles, 

forming  a  proboscis  protected  by  a 
scabbard  or  sheath.  In  some  flies  this 
weapon  is  many  times  as  long  as  the 
body.  The  head  is  well  separated  from 
the  body,  and  movable.  The  eyes  are 
compound  and  simple,  made  up  of  many 
facets  (Fig  219).  The  wings  are  gauze- 
like,  often  beautiful,  and  when  the  fly  is 
in  motion,  they  move  in  a  figure  eight, 
making,  it  is  estimated,  19,800  revolu- 

FIG.  219.  — Eyes  of  a 

fly.  tions   a   minute.      The   feet  (Fig.    202) 


206 


FLIES   AND   MOSQUITOES 


enable  it  to  cling  to  the  smoothest  surfaces  with  ease.  The 
little  pads  are  extremely  irritating  at  times  when  the  fly 
walks  over  the  flesh,  tapping  here 
and  there  with  its  soft  tongue,  in 
which  all  parts  except  the  labium 
are  rudimentary.  The  latter  has  a 
broad  tip  for  licking  or  lapping. 
The  flies  breathe  by  spiracles,  and 
are  among  the  most  active  of  all 
insects,  and  the  bravest,  attacking 
man  and  beast,  and  refusing  to  be 
driven  off,  despite  the  most  active 
and  spirited  defense. 

FIG.  220.  —  Foot  of  a  fly.  T-I          i         i  r    ^i         i 

The  development   of   the   house 

fly  is  a  familiar  process.  The  eggs  of  the  flesh  fly,  as  an 
example  (Fig.  221),  are  small,  white  objects  which  hatch 
into  maggots.  These  change  gradually,  finally  becoming 
pupae,  then  assuming  the  adult  form.  The  bluebottle  fly 


FIG.  221.  —  Flesh  fly,  eggs  and  young  in  various  stages  of  development. 

(Fig.  222)  is  one  of  the  best  known.  The  house  fly  is 
found  in  greatest  numbers  near  stables,  as  there,  in  the 
piles  of  refuse,  the  eggs  are  deposited,  hatching  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  young  appear  as  fleshy,  soft,  footless 
worms  or  maggots,  which  are  ravenous,  and  live  upon  the 
most  foetid  matter  for  two  weeks,  when  they  change  into 
a  pupa,  a  barrel-shaped,  cocoonlike  form.  For  two  weeks 


FLIES  AND   MOSQUITOES  207 

this  remains  motionless,  when  out  of  it  breaks  the  perfect 
house  fly,  soon  to  deposit  its  eggs  and  help  to  produce 
the  tens  of  millions  of  flies  which 
swarm  wherever  human  beings 
are  found. 

Among  the  many  species  of 
flies  some  are  bloodsuckers,  as 
the  horse  flies.  The  robber 
flies  are  the  hawks  of  the  race, 
carrying  off  other  insects,  even  FIG.  222.  —  Bluebottle  fly  and 
large  dragon  flies.  The  many 

species  of  horse  flies  attack  horses  and  cattle,  and  the 
animals  are  often  driven  to  a  frenzy  by  their  approach. 
An  entire  herd  will  recognize  the  approach  of  these 
insects  and  stampede.  Many  of  the  flies  deposit  their 
eggs  upon  the  hairs  or  nostrils  of  horses.  Flies  exist 
in  countless  varieties,  from  harmless  creatures  to  some 
in  Africa  which  are  deadly  to  cattle  and  horses ;  from 
the  ordinary  fly  whose  larva  lives  in  cheese  to  others 
which  thrive  in  alcohol  and  wine.  In  California  the  larva 
of  one  species  is  found  in  Lake  Mono,  where  no  other 
animal  can  live.  Hundreds  of  bushels  of  them  are  some- 
times washed  upon  the  beaches,  constituting  a  favorite 
food  for  the  Indians. 

The  warfare  declared  against  mosquitoes  in  America, 
suggested  by  Dr.  Howard,  has  attracted  widespread  atten- 
tion to  these  insects,  which  have  rendered  many  localities 
absolutely  uninhabitable.  A  Florida  physician  informed  me 
that  in  a  certain  locality  horses  had  been  killed  by  these 
insatiate  bloodsuckers,  which  are  now  known  to  be  the 
carriers  of  the  germs  of  yellow  fever.  Over  almost  every 


208 


FLIES   AND   MOSQUITOES 


pond  or  pool  in   summer  they  may  be  seen  in  countless 
numbers,  filling  the  air  with  their  disagreeable  music. 

The  proboscis,  or  sucking  weapon,  of  the 
mosquito  (Fig.  223)  is  an  innocent-appearing 
object  when  closed ;  but  when  the  sheath  is 
open  it  displays  a  series  of  scimeter  and  saw- 
tooth daggers  (Fig.  224),  which  fully  explains 
the  torture  of  the  mosquito  bite  or  that  of 
the  gnat  which  crawls 
up  one's  sleeve  (Fig. 
225).  In  all  these  ex- 
traordinary weapons 

we     find      the      same 
FIG.  223.  — 

Proboscis  of  a    organs,  the    labium, 

mosquito.  labrum>  and  otherS)  but 

with   greater  or  less   development, 


FIG.  224.  —  Proboscis  of  a  mosquito  open. 


FIG.  225.  —  Biting  organs  of 
a  gnat. 


according    to    the    nature    of    the 
insect. 

It  is  the  female  mosquito  which  occasions  all  the  trouble 
and  renders  mankind  miserable  in  some  of  the  otherwise 
most  delightful  resorts.  On  the  Florida  Keys  I  always 


FLIES   AND   MOSQUITOES  209 

had  a  mosquito  bar  overhead,  not  merely  over  the  bed  but 
suspended  from  the  ceiling  in  midday.  Even  then  these 
pests  would  force  their  way  through  the  meshes. 


FIG.  226.  —  Development  of  the  mosquito. 

The  development  of  the  mosquito  is  interesting 
(Fig.  226).  The  eggs  are  deposited  as  a  boat-shaped 
mass  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  where  they  drift  about 
for  several  days.  The  larvae  appear  as  wigglers  float- 

HOL.  LO.  AN. —  14 


210 


FLIES   AND   MOSQUITOES 


ing  in  the  water,  tail  upward,  and  breathing  through  a 
tube  at  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  which  is  projected  above 
the  water  for  the  purpose.  After  a  while  the  head  grows 
larger,  and  several  changes  ensue.  Then  the  pupa  finally 
appears.  This  rises  to  the  surface,  and  out  bursts  a  full- 
fledged  mosquito  which,  like  a  man  in  a  canoe,  balances 
itself  while  its  wings  dry.  A  few  hours  before  it  was 


FIG.  227.  —  The  gnat  (Culex)  and  its  development  from  the  egg:  A, 
B,  larva;  C,  pupa;  D,  adult. 


entirely  dependent  upon  the  water  and  swimming  in  it,  but 
now  it  appears  to  be  fearful  of  overturning  the  frail  craft 
and  falling  in  where  it  would  surely  drown.  If  all  goes 
well,  it  soon  tries  its  wings  and  goes  buzzing  away.  The 
devastation  caused  by  the  armed  and  bewhiskered  mos- 
quito is  not  generally  known.  Doubtless  thousands  have 
lost  their  lives  from  this  unsuspected. cause. 


FLIES   AND    MOSQUITOES 


211 


The  common  gnat  (Fig.  227)  has  habits  similar  to  those 
of  the  mosquito.  They  are  often  seen  floating  in  the  air 
in  great  swarms  or  bands,  rising  and  forming  as  though  in 
some  mystic  dance. 

Closely  allied  to  these  forms  are  the  fleas  (Fig.  228), 
which  are  at  once  interesting  and  irritating.  They  are 


FIG.  228.  — The  flea  and  its  development. 

wingless,  and  have  two  simple  eyes.  The  larva  resembles 
a  small  caterpillar.  It  attains  its  growth  in  twelve  days, 
then  enters  a  small  cocoon,  which  it  weaves.  There  it 
remains  for  sixteen  days,  when  it  breaks  forth  a  full-grown 
flea.  Of  all  insects  the  fleas  are  the  most  amenable 
to  instruction.  Some  years  ago  a  flea  circus  was  one  of 
the  attractions  of  New  York,  where,  by  looking  through  a 
magnifying  glass,  one  could  see  fleas  dragging  chariots 
with  other  fleas  dressed  as  cavaliers  sitting  on  the  seats. 
Many  other  seemingly  impossible  feats  were  exhibited. 


XXVII.     THE  BUTTERFLIES  AND  MOTHS 

OF  all  the  insects  the  butterflies  (Fig.  229)  are  the  most 
beautiful.  Nature  has  arrayed  them  in  coats  of  many 
colors.  Every  tint  and  every  possible  shade  of  color,  includ- 


Fio.  229.  —  A  butterfly. 

ing  metallic,  is  found  among  them.  In  some  of  the  South 
American  forests  they  are  of  gigantic  size,  a  blaze  of  iri- 
descent blue,  as  though  formed  of  the  most  delicate  flakes 
of  that  beautiful  mineral  labradorite. 

The  butterflies  add  to  the  beauty  of  nature.  Among 
the  trees  they  congregate,  forming  dashes  of  color,  red, 
blue,  green,  and  golden  yellow.  They  vie  with  the  flowers 

212 


THE    BUTTERFLIES   AND   MOTHS 


213 


in  their  splendors ;  besides  being  ornamental  they  accom- 
plish a  great  work  in  carrying  pollen  from  flower  to  flower 
and  from  plant  to  plant.  They  have  small  heads  (Fig. 
230),  short  antennae,  and  four  beautiful  wings  which  are 
covered  with  minute  scales.  Each  of  the  latter  when 


FIG.  230.  —  Head  of  a  moth. 


FIG.  231.  —  Mouth  parts  of  a  butterfly. 


examined  under  a  microscope  becomes  a  resplendent 
object,  glistening  like  the  plate  of  some  gorgeous  armor. 
The  mouth  parts  are  adapted  for  sucking,  and  are  coiled 
up  when  not  in  use  (Fig.  231).  They  consist  of  two 
tubular  or  hollow  threads. 

The  ordinary  caterpillar  is  the  larva  of  the  butterfly. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  on  leaves  and  various  places, 
and  soon  hatch  into  caterpillars  (Fig.  232).  These  lead 
a  predatory  life  for  some  time,  doing  a  vast  amount 
of  damage,  almost  every  plant  having  its  peculiar  pest. 
Some  affect  one  tree,  some  another.  The  famous  elm  trees 
of  many  of  the  New  England  cities  have  more  than  once 


214  THE   BUTTERFLIES   AND   MOTHS 

been  threatened  by  these  larvae.     They  shed  their  coats 
several   times.     The   caterpillar   finally   merges   into   the 

chrysalis,  from 
which  it  escapes 
as  the  perfect 
insect.  All  of 
these  changes 
can  easily  be 
observed  by 
keeping  a  cater- 
pillar  under 
continuous  ob- 
servation. The 
butterflies  have 
well-developed 

FIG.  232. -Butterfly  and  young.  legs»     but     thev 

rarely  use  them 

for  locomotion,  preferring  to  fly  from  flower  to  flower, 
The  tortoise-shell 
butterfly  is  a  familiar 
form  (Fig.  233),  its 
marvelous  colors  re- 
sembling this  shell. 
Some  have  an  un- 
der covering  of  pure 
silver.  Another 
conspicuous  form  is 
the  white  butterfly 

FIG.  233.  —  Tortoise-shell  butterfly. 

(Fig.     234),     which, 

as  its  name  suggests,  is  pure  white,  with   several   black 

spots. 


THE    BUTTERFLIES    AND    MOTHS 


215 


FIG.  234.  —  White  butterfly  and  young. 


When  the  butterfly  is  at  rest  its  wings  are  held  aloft,  and 
many  are  so  colored  that  in  this  position  the  wing  resem- 
bles a  leaf  and  the  animal 
escapes  observation.  A 
marvelous  example  of  this 
protective  mimicry  is  ob- 
served in  the  East  Indian 
butterfly,  Kallima  (Fig. 
235).  The  wings  have 
a  little  projection  which 
resembles  a  stem  from 
which  a  dark  mark  resem- 
bling a  midrib  extends. 
When  the  butterfly 
alights,  this  seeming 
stem,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration,  appears  to  join  to  the  branch,  and  the  resem- 
blance to  a  leaf  is  so  perfect  that  the  most  careful  observer 
is  often  deceived.  Other  butterflies  observed  by  Wallace 
mimicked  dry  oak  leaves  and  dead  leaves  of  various  kinds. 
All  the  spots  and  colors  of  decay  were  imitated  in  their 
wings.  Other  Indian  forms  resemble  fungus,  and  utterly 
disappear  as  they  alight  upon  it.  No  more  attractive  but- 
terfly is  seen  than  the  finely  marked  Vanessa,  the  peacock 
butterfly  (Fig.  236),  which  has  beautiful  peacock  marks 
upon  its  wings  in  vivid  blue. 

In  southern  California,  almost  every  spring,  there  is  a 
migration  of  butterflies  from  the  south  northward  along 
the  Sierra  Madre.  I  have  watched  them  for  hours,  num- 
bers being  seen  over  a  given  spot  every  moment  By 
writing  to  postmasters  and  other  persons  in  different  sec- 


216 


THE   BUTTERFLIES   AND   MOTHS 


tions,  I  found  that  the  migrating  band  was  two  hundred 
miles  long  and  from  ten  to  twenty  miles  wide.     Doubtless 


FlG-  235.  —  A  butterfly  which  resembles  a  leaf. 

this  was  but  a  fraction  of  its  actual  extent,  it  being  made 
up,  in  reality,  of  millions  of  yellow  butterflies.  Darwin 
saw  such  a  migration  in  South  America.  Their  pathway 


THE   BUTTERFLIES   AND   MOTHS 


was  several  miles  in  width,  they  filled  the  air  like  a  yellow 
cloud,  and  were 
several  hours  pass- 
ing a  given  point. 
Vessels  out  at  sea 
have  met  with  simi- 
lar flocks  blown 
away  from  the 
shore. 

The  butterflies  are 
included  in  the 
Lepidoptera,  and 
are  the  day-flying 
forms.  There  are 
many  other  insects 
equally  beautiful,  in  Fia  236-  -  Peacock  butterfly- 

more  subdued  tints,  which  are  night  flyers.     These  are 


FIG.  237.  —  Silkworm  moth. 


the  moths  (Fig.  237),  which  are  slow  of  flight,  ponderous, 
and   have  extraordinary  tongues   for   sucking   the   juices 


218  THE   BUTTERFLIES    AND    MOTHS 

from  the  flowers.  They  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
butterflies  by  their  feathered  antennae.  One  of  the 
best  known  for  its  ravages  is  the  dwarf  moth,  the  worm 
of  which  plays  such  havoc  among  woolens.  The  can- 
kerworm  moth  is  equally  a  pest  among  valuable  shade 
trees.  Another  familiar  form  is  the  hawk  moth  (Fig.  238), 
which  so  resembles  a  humming  bird  in  appearance  and 


FIG.  238. —  Hawk  moth,  a  rapid  flyer. 

motion  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  distinguish  between 
the  two,  the  moth  being  one  of  the  most  active,  poising  over 
flowers  and  inserting  its  enormous  tongue  to  secure  the 
sweets  there  concealed.  A  showy  moth  is  the  huge  Atta- 
cus,  its  larva  being  especially  large  and  voracious. 

The  moths  display  as  great  a  variety  in  their  shapes, 
colors,  and  sizes  as  the  butterflies.  The  death's-head  moth 
(Fig.  239)  is  perhaps  as  startling  as  any,  bearing  on  its 
back  a  well-defined  figure  of  a  skull  The  most  valuable 


THE    BUTTERFLIES   AND   MOTHS 


219 


moth  to  man  is  the  silkworm  moth,  the  wings  of  which 
have  a  spread  of  six  inches  and  are  a  brilliant  ochre  yellow, 
fawn,  or  mouse  color,  marked  with  striking  peacock-like 
eyes.  They  deposit  eggs,  but  the  development  of  the 
caterpillar  is  somewhat  different  from  that  of  the  butterfly 


FIG.  239.  —  Death's-head  moth. 

larva.  The  latter  passes  its  pupa  stage  as  an  unprotected 
chrysalis  attached  to  some  object  by  the  tail  (Fig.  240), 
but  the  caterpillar  of  the  moth  secretes  silk  from  a  gland 
in  its  head,  and  with  this  forms  about  itself  a  cocoon. 
This  is  unwound  by  machinery  and  woven  into  the  valuable 
silk  of  commerce.  The  silk  industry  brings  to  the  weavers 


220 


THE   BUTTERFLIES   AND   MOTHS 


of   the   United    States   alone  an  annual  sum  amounting 

to    about    $30,000,000. 

The    silkworm    can 

easily  be  kept  and  all 

its    changes    watched, 

and  many  persons  are 

interested     in    rearing 

the  worms.     The  time 

required    by   the    worm    to    form    its    silk 

cocoon  varies  with  the  locality.     Thus  in 

France  it  will  complete  it 

in  four  days,  while  in  Eng- 
land  forty  or  more  days 

are  necessary.     About  two 

hundred  cocoons  weigh  a 

pound. 

Silkworm     moths     are 

ravenous     eaters,     living 

principally    on    mulberry 

leaves.     They  show  much 

intelligence     in     forming 

Thus  a  South  American 
moth  (Fig.  241)  forms  a  basketlike  struc- 
ture which  it  suspends  from  some  limb. 
The  cradle  swings  in  the  wind  like  a  seed 
pod,  more  than  anything  else,  and  would 
never  be  suspected  as  inclosing  a  living 
creature.  Many  of  the  moths,  by  some 
remarkable  instinct,  deposit  their  eggs  where  the  young 
will  find  an  immediate  supply  of  food.  This  care  for 
their  young  is  the  cause  of  a  vast  amount  of  damage 


FIG.  240.  —  Pupa  of 

butterfly. 

their  cocoons. 


FIG.  241.  — Bas- 
ketlike cocoon  of 
a  South  American 
moth. 


THE   BUTTERFLIES   AND   MOTHS 


221 


among  fruit  trees.  The 
fruit  moth,  as  an  example, 
deposits  its  eggs  in  fruit ; 
the  caterpillar  penetrates  it 
and  devours  the  interior, 
thousands  of  bushels  of 
apples  being  destroyed 
yearly  in  this  way,  not  to 
speak  of  other  fruits. 

One  of  the  best  known  of 
the  moths  is  the  tent  moth 
(Fig.  242),  the  larva  of 
which  forms  a  tentlike  web 
for  its  protection  in  the 

trees  it  affects.  A  richly  tinted  flyer  is  known  as  the  goat 
moth  (Fig.  243),  the  caterpillar  being  a  large  and  beauti- 
ful creature. 


FIG.  242.  —  Tent  moth,  caterpillar  and. 
cocoon. 


FIG.  243.  —  Goat  moth. 


XXVIII.     THE   ANTS 

IF  the  question  should  be  propounded  which  next  to 
man  is  the  most  intelligent  of  animals,  the  reply  might  be, 
the  ants ;  for  after  a  careful  study  of  all  the  ways  and 
habits  of  these  small  insects,  it  will  be  very  evident  that 
the  lives  of  many  are  conducted  with  more  method  than 
the  lowest  human  lives. 

The  ants  belong  to  the  great  group  called  Hymenoptera 
—  insects  with  membranelike  wings,  including  the  gall 
flies,  bees,  and  wasps. 

.Ants  are  found  everywhere.  Long  lines  are  seen  march- 
ing along,  some  coming,  some  going,  in  countless  multi- 
tudes. Yet  drop  a  strange  ant  into  this  highway  and  it  is 
at  once  discovered  and  in  danger.  If  water  is  poured 
into  a  nest  of  ants,  the  inhabitants  come  rushing  out. 
Some  come  to  fight,  and  others  bear  in  their  mouths  the 
young  (Fig.  244),  countless  thousands,  to  a  place  of  safety. 

The  ant  is  a  trim,  vigorous  individual,  fleet  of  foot,  tire- 
less, never  weary,  brave,  industrious,  a  type  of  the  worker. 
The  head  is  large.  The  eyes  are  compound,  with  three 
single  eyes.  The  antennae  are  long,  slender  organs  by 
which  ants  appear  to  recognize  friends  or  foes,  and  possi- 
bly talk  with  them  in  some  way.  Certainly  when  two 
ants  meet,  a  very  strange  interchange  of  courtesies  with 
the  antennae  is  performed.  The  males  and  females  are 
winged,  and  there  is  a  third  kind  without  wings,  called 
workers. 

222 


THE   ANTS 


223 


Ants  live  in  vast  communities  of  from  one  hundred 
thousand  to  five  hundred  thousand  or  more.  They  exca- 
vate the  soil  and  gravel,  descend  into  the  ground,  and 


FIG.  244.  —  Ants  removing  their  young  to  a  place  of  safety. 


THE   ANTS 


tunnel  it  in  every  direction  (Fig.  245).  In  certain  places 
they  store  food,  in  others  eggs.  The  affairs  of  their  vast 
underground  city  are  carried  on  with  a  marvelous  method. 
Although  the  ants  have  wings,  these  are  soon  cast  away. 
At  certain  times  the  winged  males  and  females  swarm 
out  of  the  nest  and  fly  away,  forming  other  communities. 
The  males  soon  die;  the  females  rid  themselves  of  their 


FIG.  245.  —  Tunnels  of  ants. 

wings,  and  thereafter  remain  in  their  new  nests.  The 
entire  work  of  the  community  falls  upon  the  so-called 
workers.  They  make  the  nest,  repair  it,  do  the  fighting 
when  necessary,  move  the  immature  young  or  eggs,  shut 
up  the  nest  at  night,  and  open  it  in  the  morning.  The 
eggs  are  minute,  and  as  soon  as  laid  are  taken  by  the 
workers,  or  nurses,  as  they  are  also  called,  and  carried  to 


THE   ANTS 


225 


FIG.  246.  —  Egg  and  larvae  of  the  ant. 


favorable  places,  where  they  are  carefully  watched.  They 
are  shifted  about  and  occasionally  for  some  reason  brought 
above  ground.  The  larvae,  when  they  hatch  (Fig.  246), 
appear  as  little 
worms,  or  grubs, 
which  would  starve 
if  they  were  not 
constantly  fed  by 
the  nurses.  If  it 
is  too  cold,  these 
babies  are  taken  up 
into  the  sunshine,  or  placed  in  some  hall  near  the  surface 
where  the  sun's  rays  can  reach  them.  Finally  they 
change  to  the  pupa  stage  and  are  covered  by  a  web. 
They  are  still  cared  for  with  the  greatest  solicitude  by 
the  nurses,  which  stand  by  when  they  finally  hatch  out 
and  aid  them  in  their  entrance  into  the  world.  Nurses 
in  every  sense  of  the  word,  their  care  at  this  time  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  exhibitions  of  human  traits  in  a 
lower  animal  known.  Many  other  human  traits  find  their 
prototype  among  these  minute  animals.  They  care  for 
the  young,  the  sick,  and  the  wounded ;  they  go  to  war, 
capture  their  foes,  make  slaves  of  them,  and  force  them 
to  work.  They  keep  certain  insects  for  the  pleasant  odor 
they  afford  and  others  for  the  secretions  they  emit,  the 
latter  action  resembling  keeping  and  milking  cows.  Ants 
build  remarkable  houses  arranged  in  rooms  for  various 
purposes ;  they  plant  gardens  to  raise  certain  crops ;  they 
introduce  plants  that  will  provide  certain  food ;  they 
retard  the  growth  of  seeds  in  their  granaries ;  build  vast 
underground  or  covered  roads  to  escape  the  heat ;  they 

HOL.  LO.  AN. —  15 


226  THE   ANTS 

make  bridges  to  cross  streams;  and  in  numerous  other 
ways  they  demonstrate  their  remarkable  intelligence. 

The  extent  of  the  homes  of  ants  is  astonishing  when  we 
bear  in  mind  the  size  of  the  insect.  Some  often  extend 
many  feet  underground,  and  their  tunnels  have  been 
traced  beneath  the  broad  Paraiba  River  of  South 
America. 

Many  different  species  of  ants  are  known,  all  interesting 
for  their  singular  ways  of  living.  The  foraging  or  slave- 


FlG.  247.  —  Honey  ants. 

making  ants  of  Africa  go  to  war  against  other  ants. 
Such  foraging  trips  are  carried  on  with  remarkable  dis- 
cipline, and  the  warriors  may  be  seen  returning,  a  trium- 
phant army,  bearing  the  eggs  and  larvae  of  the  enemy, 
which  they  nurse  and  bring  up  as  slaves.  These  slave 
makers  are  large  and  powerful  Ecitons,  the  dominant 
race  of  the  ants. 

Among  the  slave-making  ants  the  owners  often  become 
so  dependent  upon  the  slaves  that  they  are  almost  helpless, 
and  would  starve  were  it  not  for  these  dependents.  The 


THE   ANTS  22; 

so-called  honey  ants  of  Texas  exhibit  some  remarkable 
traits  in  the  manner  of  their  lives  (Fig.  247),  These 
ants,  which  I  have  observed  in  the  Garden  of  the  Gods, 
Colorado,  select  certain  individuals  as  storehouses  and 
supply  them  with  honey  until  the  abdomen  is  expanded 
to  many  times  its  size,  resembling  a  bottle.  The  ants 
when  filled  are  placed  in  a  compartment  made  for  the 
purpose,  and  there  hung  to  the  wall,  animated  honey  jars, 
which  are  taken  down  and  made  to  give  up  their  sweets 
as  occasion  demands.  These  honey  balls  are  considered  a 
delicacy  in  Mexico,  and  are  served  as  dessert. 

Among  the  ants,  those  of  Texas  known  as  the  agricul- 
tural ants  are  remarkable  for  their  intelligence.  They  are 
farmers,  laying  out  places  which  they  cultivate  with  a  cer- 
tain plant,  which  is  especially  to  their  taste,  just  as  farmers 
plant  corn. 


. 

OF  THE  A 

[   UNIVERSITY  ) 

OF 


XXIX.     THE    BEES    AND   WASPS 


IN  almost  every  flower  bed  in  the  garden  we  shall  find 
the  bees,  examples  of  tireless  energy,  storing  up  honey  for 
their  young  in  such  vast  quantities  that  the  surplus  forms 
a  valuable  food  supply  for  man  as  well.  The  nests  of 
bees  are  systematically  robbed  of  their  stores,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  insects  are  supplied  with  artificial  nests  or 
hives,  in  which  they  deposit  their  honey,  entirely  for  the 
benefit  of  mankind.  Here  we  see  a  singular  limitation 
placed  upon  intelligence.  The  intelligence  of  bees  is  won- 
derful and  amazing.  Many  of  their  acts  and  works  sug- 
gest those  of  human  beings,  yet  when  the  time  comes  for 
thinking  after  the  fashion  of  men,  the  bees  are  lacking. 
They  go  on  storing  honey  in  artificial 
hives  without  being  able  to  bridge 
the  mental  chasm  and  perceive  that 
they  are  being  robbed  and  made  to 
work  as  virtual  slaves.  Hence  we 
assume  that  the  intelligence  of  bees 
is  not  on  the  same  plane  as  that  of 
human  beings.  They  appear  to  be 
acting  upon  a  strong  instinct  which 
impels  them  to  perform  acts  which 
seem  intelligent. 

The  head  of  the  bee  bears  two 
remarkable  compound  eyes,  with 
three  simple  .ones  between  them. 


r/////iff|lu\\vv 

FIG.  248.— The  head  of  a  bee. 


228 


THE   BEES   AND   WASPS 


229 


FlG.  249.  —  Bees:  a,  queen;  bt  drone;  £,  worker. 


The  antennae  are  short.     The  mouth  parts  (Fig.  248)  are 

complicated,  and  adapted  for  sucking  up  the  honey  or 

sweets  of  flowers  or 

the  juices  of  fruits. 

In     California,     the 

bees  eat  fruit  as  well 

as  honey,  and  even 

flesh  or  meat,  in  very 

dry     seasons,    when 

flowers    are     scarce. 

The  abdomen  of  the 

bee  (Fig.  249)  is  sup- 
plied with  a  sawlike 

stinger  or  dart  (Fig. 

250)  which  inflicts  a 

painful  and  poisonous  wound.  In  general  appearance  the 
ordinary  honeybee  resembles  an  ant  with 
wings;  but  the  bee  is  hairy,  it  has  a 
sting,  and  the  legs  of  the  worker  are 
provided  with  "  honey  baskets,"  which 
carry  pollen. 

Bees  are  of  several  kinds,  queens, 
workers,  and  drones,  there  being  a  divi- 
sion of  labor.  The  queen  is  the  largest, 
the  drone  is  the  smallest,  and  it  has  no 
sting.  The  history  of  the  bee  and  its 

FIG.  250.— sting  of  a  development  is  one  of  the  most  wonder- 
ful chapters  in  the  whole  story  of  animal 

life.     Glancing  at  the  interior  of  a  hive  we  see  that  the 

bees  have  constructed  a  series    of   hexagonal  cells.      To 

learn  how  they  have  accomplished    this,  we  may  follow 


230  THE   BEES   AND   WASPS 

a  bee  in  its  flight.  This  may  be  one  or  two  miles  from 
the  hive,  yet  so  perfect  is  the  knowledge  of  the  bee  of 
direction,  that  it  is  rarely  lost.  Reaching  a  flower  it 
sucks  out  the  honey,  which  it  swallows.  It  then  takes 
pollen,  the  dust  from  the  stamen  of  the  flowers,  and 
stows  it  away  in  little  baskets  attached  to  the  legs.  It 
also  takes  a  waxlike  substance  called  propolis  from  buds 
of  various  trees,  which  it  packs  with  the  pollen  in  the 
baskets.  Arriving  at  the  nest,  the  bee,  with  countless 
others,  engages  in  the  construction  of  the  cells,  which 
are  of  various  sizes.  The  material  for  building  up  the 
cells  is  wax,  which  is  secreted  by  the  bees,  appearing  in 
little  flakes  under  the  abdomen,  from  which  it  is  taken 
by  the  legs  of  the  bee.  This  is  the  material  from  which 
the  comb  is  made,  while  the  propolis  is  employed  as  a 
cement  to  attach  the  cells  together,  and  for  various  minor 
purposes.  Think  of  thousands  of  workers  bringing  in  this 
material,  working  in  the  dark,  yet  never  making  a  mistake. 
The  bee  finally  ejects  the  honey  which  it  has  swallowed, 
placing  it  in  certain  cells,  where  it  is  sealed  up  and  remains 
until  it  is  needed  as  food.  The  pollen  is  also  placed  in 
cells. 

A  single  community  of  bees  may  consist  of  two  hundred 
thousand  individuals.  In  the  hive  there  is  a  single  queen, 
which  often  lays  from  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand 
eggs  a  day,  and  if  we  could  follow  her,  we  should  find  that 
she  lays  the  eggs  in  different  cells,  and  in  cells  of  different 
sizes.  In  the  first  are  eggs  which  develop  into  workers, 
and  in  the  second  are  larger  eggs  which  will  produce  males, 
called  drones.  The  little  eggs  soon  hatch  into  white  grubs 
which  are  carefully  fed  by  the  workers  with  digested  honey 


THE   BEES   AND   WASPS 


231 


and  pollen.  Finally  the  young  larvae  almost  fill  the  cells 
and  then  stop  eating.  The  workers  cover  them  in,  and 
each  spins  for  itself  a  silken  cocoon,  in  which  it  remains 
until  it  breaks  out  in  the  form  of  a  perfect  bee. 

The  workers  build  certain  large  cells  on  the  side  of  the 
comb,  which  are  called  queen  cells,  and  the  larvae  which 
appear  in  them  are  fed  with  some  peculiar  food  which 
produces  queens.  The  workers  watch  each  of  these  cells 
with  great  care,  gnawing  the  wax  away  on  top  so  that  they 
can  observe  the  progress  of  development.  Finally  a  small 
hole  is  made,  through  which  the  proboscis  of  the  young 
queen  protrudes,  and  in  this  way  it  is  fed  for  several  days, 
during  which  it  utters  a  low,  piping  noise.  The  queens 
attack  each  other  on  sight,  and  previous  to  the  appearance 
of  a  young  queen  the  old  one,  with  thousands  of  followers, 
makes  her  escape,  or  swarms.  Then  the  workers  liberate 
a  young  queen,  and  if  there  are  others,  there  are  repeated 
swarms,  each  queen  leaving 
with  a  multitude  of  followers, 
till  the  hive  has  but  one 
queen.  There  are  in  the 
community  now  a  number  of 
drones,  and  as  they  appear 
to  be  an  expensive  and 
worthless  burden  to  carry 
during  the  winter,  the  work- 
ers attack  and  kill  them, 
throwing  them  out  of  the 
hive. 

Among   the    many    kinds 
of  bees  the  carpenters  (Fig.  FIG.  251.- Carpenter  bee. 


232 


THE   BEES   AND   WASPS 


FIG.  252. —  Bumblebee  and  nest. 


251)  are  famous,  boring  tunnels  into  solid  wood  for  the 
reception  of  their  young ;  half  an  inch  a  day  being  accom- 
plished by  these  lit- 
tle carpenters.  The 
bumblebee,  one  of 
the  largest,  forms  its 
nest  in  the  ground 
(Fig.  252). 

The  wasps  (Fig. 
253)  live  in  societies 
of  males,  females, 
and  workers.  The 
paperlike  nests  are 
familiar  objects  in 
the  woods,  resembling  great  bags  of  paper  which  when 
opened  are  seen  to 
be  filled  with  cells. 
Many  nests  are  of 
beautiful  shapes,  re- 
sembling candelabra, 
while  the  cells  of  the 
common  mud  dauber 
(Fig.  254)  call  to  mind 
the  adobe  houses  of 
the  Mexicans  and 
Indians  of  the  South- 
west The  mud  cells 
of  a  South  American 

wasp  resemble  bottles  Fia  2S3-  -  WasP  and 

(Fig.  255).     Many  of  the  large  wasps  are  fierce  and  vin- 
dictive, and  nearly  all  resent  an  attack  upon  their  homes. 


INDEX 


Abalone,  109. 

/Eolis,  114. 

Aeronaut,  179. 

Agassiz,  Louis,  27. 

Amoeba,  8,  10. 

Anemone,  38,  43. 

Angle  worm,  82. 

Animalcules,  76. 

Ant,  223. 

Antennae,  96. 

Ant  lion,  181. 

Aphis,  202. 

Aphrodite,  85. 

Aplysia,  114. 

Apus,  137. 

Aragonite,  29. 

Arcturus,  178. 

Argonaut,  125. 

Arion,  115. 

Aristeus,  158. 

Ascension  Is.,  147. 

Astraea,  49. 

Atlantic,  51. 

Atoll,  48. 

Attacus,  218. 

Attus,  172. 

Aurelia,  29. 

Auricle,  92. 

Avalon,  86. 

Avalon,  Phosphorescence  at,  86,  101, 

B 

Banks,  Sir  J.,  157. 
Barnacle,  104. 
Barnacle,  Goose,  134. 
Bean  aphis,  200. 
Bee,  228. 


Beetles,  195. 
Beetles,  Boring,  197. 
Bell  Animalcule,  12. 
Bivalve,  91. 
Blind  crustacean,  143. 
Bluebottle  fly,  206. 
Book  scorpion,  166. 
Brachiopoda,  81. 
Branchipus,  137. 
Brine  shrimp,  137. 
Buffalo  bug,  198. 
Bugs,  199. 
Bulimus,  112. 
Bumble  bee,  223. 
Burgos  crab,  154. 
Butterflies,  212. 
Byssus,  99. 


Caddis  worm,  185. 
Cardium,  103. 
Carpenter  bee,  231. 
Caryophyllia,  47. 
Cassis,  no. 
Caterpillar,  164. 
Caves,  Santa  Catalina,  32. 
Centipede,  165. 
Cerithium,  103. 
Chaetopterus,  86. 
Challenger,  147. 
Chamseleon,  143. 
Chinch  bug,  198. 
Chiton,  101. 
Cicada,  200. 
Cilia,  ii. 
Clam,  Giant,  98. 
Cleodora,  116. 
Cochineal,  202. 


233 


234 


INDEX 


Cockle,  102. 
Cocoanut  crab,  155, 
Colossendeis,  157. 
Conch,  1 06,  no. 
Cone,  no. 
Conus,  no. 
Coral,  44,  51,  53. 
Coral  insect,  52. 
Cottony  scale,  203. 
Cowry,  1 10. 
Crab,  42,  124,  156. 
Cranchia,  127. 
Crayfish,  130,  144, 
Crickets,  165,  191. 
Crinoid,  56. 
Crustacean,  128. 
Ctenactis,  46. 
Cteniza,  174. 
Cuttlefish,  117. 
Cyanea,  27. 
Cyclops,  135. 
Cypraea,  no. 
Cyprinse,  136. 


Daddy  longlegs,  167. 
Darwin,  83. 
Decorative  crab,  151. 
Dendronotus,  114. 
Dentalium,  116. 
Devilfish,  117. 
Doris,  114. 
Dragon  fly,  180. 


Echinus,  65. 
Eciton,  226. 
Edible  crab,  148. 
Eolis,  see  y£olis. 
Erenberg,  77. 

F 

Fiddler  crab,  149. 

P'ierasfer,  71. 

Firmin,  Point,  32. 

Firmin,  Point,  Phosphorescence  at,  32. 


Firmin,  Point,  Waves  at,  32. 

Flea,  211. 

Florida,  71. 

Flustra,  78. 

Fly,  204. 

Flying  spider,  172. 

Foraminifera,  15. 

Fresh-water  pearl,  98. 

Fungia,  51. 

Fusus,  in. 


Gall  crab,  152. 
Gammarus,  138. 
Garden  Key,  44. 
Garden  of  the  Gods,  227. 
Gecarcinus,  146. 
Giant  clam,  98. 
Giant  octopus,  123. 
Giant  squid,  114,  n8. 
Glacier  flea,  178. 
Glass-bottom  boat,  50. 

ilass  sponge,  23. 
Gnat,  210. 
Goat  moth,  221.      . 
Goniaster,  61. 
Gordius,  75. 
Gorgonia,  49,  53. 

Irapsus,  124,  147. 
Grasshopper,  190. 
Green  crab,  149. 

rulf  of  Mexico,  33. 
Gunther,  158. 


ialiotis,  109. 
ialobates,  201. 
lelderberg,  53. 
Permit  crab,  152. 
hibernation,  112. 
lolothurian,  72. 
loney  ant,  276. 
lorseshoe  crab,  155. 
-Toward,  Dr.,  207. 
lymenoptera,  222. 


INDEX 


235 


lanthina,  116. 
Insects,  159,  190. 

Anatomy  of,  159. 

Larvae  of,  159. 

Music  of,  190. 

Parts  of,  159. 

Spiracles  of,  159. 


Jaegar,  192. 

On  locusts,  192. 
Japanese  crab,  152. 
Jellyfishes,  26-3  c, 

Beauties  of,  27. 

Development  of,  29. 

Young  of,  29. 
June  bugs,  197. 

K 
Kallima,  215. 

L 

Labium,  206. 
Labrum,  208. 
Lake  Mono,  207. 
Lamp  shell,  80. 
Land  crab,  149,  150. 
Larva,  163. 
Lasso,  28. 
Leaf  hopper,  201. 
Leech,  82. 
Lepidoptera,  217. 
Lernseans,  136. 
Limax,  115. 
Lime,  50. 
Limnoria,  138. 
Limpet,  105,  108. 
Lingula,  80. 
Lobster,  132,  140 
Locust,  190. 
Lucernaria,  30. 
Luminous  crab,  157 


M 


Macrocheira,  152. 
Mactra,  101. 


Malay,  72. 

Mammoth  Cave,  143. 
Mantis,  186. 
May  fly,  178. 
Melicerta,  32. 
Metridia,  156. 
Mimicry,  186. 
Mimicry  of  insects,  187. 
Mite,  1 66. 
Mole  cricket,  201. 
Moseley,  Dr.,  147. 
Mosquito,  208. 

Development  of,  209. 
Moth,  221. 
Mushroom  coral,  46. 
Mussel,  97. 
Mygale,  176. 

N 

Nassa,  107. 
Natica,  106. 
National  Museum,  122. 
Nemesia,  174. 
Nereis,  86. 
Noctiluca,  1 6. 

Noctiluca,  phosphorescence,  16. 
Norway  lobster,  129. 
Nummulites,  13. 


Ocean,  15. 

Lime  in,  15. 
Octopus,  122. 
Onchidium,  155. 

Eyes  of,  155. 
Ophiocoma,  62. 
Oyster  crab,  152. 


Paper  nautilus,  125. 
Paramcecium,  12. 
Pearl,  94. 
Pelagia,  35. 
Pentacrinus,  56. 
Pentacta,  71. 
Peripatus,  164. 


236 


INDEX 


Philippines,  113. 

Phorus,  103. 

Phosphorescence,  7,  84,  156. 

Phyllium,  189. 

Physalia,  33. 

Physophora,  36. 

Planarian,  73. 

Pleurobranchia,  53. 

Polycirrus,  86. 

Polyp,  46. 

Polyzoan,  77. 

Pompilius,  223. 

Porpita,  37. 

Potato  bug,  198. 

Prawns,  142. 

Praya,  36. 

Pteropod,  115. 


Radiolarian,  14. 
Razor  clam,  99. 
Reef,  53. 
Rhizostoma,  32. 
Rotifer,  76. 


San  Clemente,  112. 

Sand  collar,  106. 

Sand  dollar,  67. 

Sand  flea,  138. 

Santa  Catalina,  32,  50,  109. 

Sapphirina,  167. 

Scale  insects,  203. 

Scorpion,  160. 

Sea  anemone,  38,  43. 

Sea  cucumber,  70,  71. 

Sea  pen,  54. 

Sea  slug,  114. 

Semper,  Dr.,  82. 

Sepia,  1 1 8. 

Serpulse,  88. 

Shrimps,  131. 

Sierra  Madre,  172. 

Silk  worm,  219. 

Siphon,  92. 


Snail,  90. 

Soft-shelled  crab,  147. 
Southern  California,  7. 
Spicules,  21,  72. 
Spider,  168. 
Spider  crab,  151. 
Spirit  crab,  128. 
Sponges,  1 8. 
Squash  bug,  199. 
Squid,  114,  1 20,  121. 
Squilla,  139. 
Starfish,  60,  64. 
Stings,  229,  233. 
Stone  lilies,  56. 
St.  Paul's  Rocks,  147. 
Sucker,  122. 
Syllis,  86. 
Synapta,  72. 

T 

Taltritus,  138. 
Tarantula,  174. 
Terebratula,  80. 
Teredo,  100. 
Tiger  beetle,  196. 
Timos,  175. 
Trichina,  75,  76. 
Tritonia,  114. 
Trochus,  103. 
Turritella,  103. 


U 


Univalve,  104. 
Urchin,  65,  69. 


Velella,  35. 

W 

Walking  stick,  188. 
Wasp,  167. 
Water  boatman,  200. 
Water  flea,  136. 
Web,  269. 
White  ant,  184. 


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